OL ARCHITECTURE 



MANUAL 

FOR 

ARCHITECTS AND 
SCHOOL AUTHORITIES 



FOURTH EDITION 




(toss ^OSIO'J 
Bonk h'J 



— 



Copyright N?. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



SCHOOL 
ARCHITECTURE 

A Handy Manual for the Use of 

Architects and School 

Authorities 



COMPILED BY 

WM. GEO. BRUCE 

Editor American School Boakd Joirnal 

Assisted by 

WM. 0. and FRANK M. RRUCE 



FOrKTII EDITION 



MILWAUKEE 

JOHNSON SERVICE COMPANY 






COPYRIGHT, 1910 
By Wm. Geo. Bruce 



€CI.A26115;-, 



INTRODUCTION 



The recognition which has been bestowed by 
the school authorities and architects of this coun- 
try upon each successive edition of this work has 
demonstrated the actual need for practical litera- 
ture on schoolhouse planning and construction. 
The first edition was a concise treatise on essen- 
tials, somewhat limited in scope and extremely 
modest in form. The succeeding editions were 
an extension and elaboration of the plan upon 
which the first was based. 

The present edition embodies, however, a de- 
cided advance over the former efforts and a radi- 
cal departure in plan of presentation. In scope it 
is extended so as to include every phase of sci- 
entific schoolhouse planning and to embody the 
latest and best thought and experiment on the 
subject. In presentation an entirely new plan has 
been adopted. Instead of presenting all subjects 
in topical form, arranged in alphabetical order, it 
has been planned to arrange the subjects with a 
view of giving them logical sequence and continu- 
ity. The ready reference feature which was em- 
phasized in the former editions is preserved in an 
ample index and table of contents. 

The subject-matter is enlarged to nearly two- 
fold. 



School Architecture 

Many phases of schoolhouse construction 
which have received recognition in recent years 
are fully described. With the growing tendency 
on the part of school boards to adopt progressive 
policies it has been possible for architects to ex- 
ert a wider latitude in introducing new features 
which have added materially to the efficiency of 
schoolhouses and to the comfort of their oc- 
cupants. 

The aim of the authors has been to include 
everything worthy of consideration and to elim- 
inate the experimental and untried and thus ren- 
der the highest degree of serviceability to those 
concerned in modern schoolhouse planning and 
construction. 

W. G. B. 




Contents 



I 

Preliminary Requirements 


Page 

7 


11 

The Building . 


. 25 


Ill 

The Class Room 


. 63 


IV 

Special Rooms 


. 105 


V 
Heating and Ventilation 


. 139 


Appendices 


. 193 


Index 


. 279 




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SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 
/ 

Preliminary Requirements. 

Architects. — The most important preliminary 
duty which precedes the erection of a schoolhouse 
is the selection of a competent architect. This 
does not merely mean the choosing of any effi- 
cient architect, but presupposes a man with ex- 
pert knowledge in the erection of school buildings. 
With the evolution of specialized construction the 
problems arising in buildings for scholastic pur- 
poses have been solved in recent years to an ex- 
tent in that there has been developed a body of 
schoolhouse architects who know intimately the 
needs of a school building, and whose plans and 
judgment can be accepted with security. 

Nevertheless, there are boards of education in 
every state who are willing to entrust to unin- 
formed builders the erection of large school- 
houses. Against this it must be said that an ex- 
pert schoolhouse architect will draw plans and 
specifications scientifically and in accordance with 
hygienic, scholastic and administrative needs of 
the school and the economic capability of the com- 
munity. In letting the contracts care will be ex- 
ercised to secure the best materials and methods 



School Architecture 

of construction at a minimum of expense. Dur- 
ing the construction of a building a school board 
will have at its command the experience and 
knowledge of an expert who at all times en- 
deavors to secure the efficient execution of plans, 
accurately and economically within the specifica- 
tions. Most important, finally, in turning over 
a building to a school board there always is 
included the responsibility for successful use upon 
which depends the reputation of the planning and 
supervising architect. 

Schoolhouse architects are employed by boards 
of education in one of three manners. There is, 
first, the architect who is permanently employed 
by the board of education and known as the offi- 
cial schoolhouse architect. Then there is the 
architect selected by the board as the result of a 
competition. Finally, there is the architect who 
is directly employed for the planning and erection 
of one building and who is dismissed upon the 
completion of the building. 

For large cities, the schoolhouse architect per- 
manently employed as an agent and representa- 
tive of the board of education to prepare, plan and 
superintend the construction of all school build- 
ings is best. Many larger cities of the country 
and a few of the smaller ones are successfully 
erecting all new buildings and making all repairs 
and changes on old structures under this plan. 
There have been created schoolhouse departments 

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10 



School Architecture 

throughout the country, which in an intelligent 
and scientific manner, are developing schoolhouse 
construction. They have standardized many 
ideas, until lately ignored, have developed types 
and styles of school buildings both beautiful and 
excellent ; have reduced the work of each of their 
boards of education and special committees to 
purely the executive, and have taught the great 
lesson of economy and honesty in public building. 
The competitive idea of choosing plans has its 
advantages and disadvantages. The latter seem 
to outnumber the former in that the best archi- 
tects, unless specially invited in the program, rare- 
ly deem their entry worth while. Again, the 
* plans submitted are plans to be accepted and not 
always plans to be practically worked from. And 
finally, as in most cases, the plans are not kept 
within the limits of available funds and when 
once accepted are practically destroyed in cutting 
and corrections. The principal argument ad- 
vanced in favor of the competitive idea is that 
high types of plans are produced. 

In small communities where the constant em- 
ployment of an architect is impossible it is most 
practical to engage an architect for the planning 
of every new building. This allows, primarily, 
the free working out of ideas by the board and 
architect. Secondly, it draws on the class of 
school architects whose every building means so 
much added to or subtracted from a necessary 

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12 



School Architecture 

reputation. It involves no other salary than the 
regular five or six per cent, commission and as- 
sures a careful consideration of local conditions 
and needs. It especially encourages co-operation 
between the architect and the professional factors. 

While the American Institute of Architects 
has established a rate of six per cent., the com- 
pensation usually allowed architects and common- 
ly accepted throughout the United States is a 
commission of five per cent, on the entire cost of 
the work. Of this amount three per cent, covers 
the plans and two per cent, the superintendence. 
The architect bases his professional charge upon 
the entire cost of the building when completed, 
including fixtures necessary to render it fit for 
occupation. The payments are made in install- 
ments as the work progresses. 

Where buildings are sufficiently large to war- 
rant the expenditure, a clerk of the works ought 
to be employed as soon as the plans have been 
accepted, to constantly supervise the processes of 
construction. This clerk or assistant architect 
ought to be absolutely familiar with all specifica- 
tions and ought give his constant attention to 
every detail from the laying of the foundation to 
the acceptance of the building by the school au- 
thorities. He ought to be appointed by agree- 
ment between the board and the architect and 
paid by the former. 



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14 



School Architecture 

Location. — A new school must necessarily be 
placed as near as possible to the center of the dis- 
trict which it serves. In rural and small urban 
communities the purchase of a site is compara- 
tively a simple matter. In large cities and grow- 
ing communities where the school population 
shifts rapidly, great care must be taken to place 
school buildings where they will be needed not 
only in the present, but also in the more distant 
future. The problem then is worthy of careful 
consideration by both the professional and lay 
factors. An examination of the trend of factory 
and commercial development, of residence dis- 
tricts and of the school census reports will give 
the necessary data. 

Residence districts are necessarily the most de- 
sirable location for school buildings. It is well 
to consider the proximity of factory, railroad and 
similar nuisances. In like manner, the presence 
of an almshouse, a jail, a hospital, a theater, etc., 
is undesirable. In country districts, lowlands, 
swampy places and extremely high hills are to 
be avoided. The ideal location for a school is on 
a side street, well kept, wide and shaded, and free 
from excessive traffic and noise. A street car 
line is desirable in the neighborhood, but should 
never pass on any side of a school building. 

Site. — The size and shape of a school site will 
depend upon the size and shape of the building 
to be erected. Basing the area on an allowance 

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School *. Irchitectufe 

of 30 square feet of playground per pupil the lot 
will be large or small according to the number of 
children to be accommodated. All in all, a corner 
lot, regular in outline, rectangular in shape, and 
adjoining an alley is to be preferred. The site 
should always be high, well drained, airy and 
free from surrounding obstructions. 

Obtaining 1 Sites. — School sites are usually 
obtained in one of two ways ; either by competitive 
purchase or by condemnation proceedings. Cost, 
location and desirability are factors which espe- 
cially govern the purchase of school property. 

When a site is to be purchased competitively, 
several pieces of property are generally consid- 
ered. The price is fixed by the desire on the one 
hand to sell and on the other hand to purchase. 
Where the cost of realty is raised beyond the or- 
dinary market price, great discretion is needed in 
dealing with sellers. Reliable real estate men 
employed in confidence and working under cover 
can at times effect great savings. 

In larger communities the necessity of con- 
demnation proceedings is apparent. In most 
cases these have proven highly satisfactory. They 
have enabled the school authorities to locate 
school buildings in the actual centers of school 
population, in sanitary and otherwise desirable 
locations, and to secure sites at the ordinary mar- 
ket value. Experience has proven that this 

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School Architecture 

method saves money over the competitive method 
and avoids scandal and public upheavals. 

Soil. — It is an established fact that "ground 
water" and "ground air" pollute soil. This pollu- 
tion is not imaginary, but has made much land un- 
inhabitable. Porous soil, such as sand or gravel 
is to be preferred, while made land and all soil 
impregnated with organic matter is to be avoided. 
The warmth of a building or the rising of ground 
water resulting from a change in barometric pres- 
sure may release more than three times the car- 
bonic acid gas ordinarily present in the air. Clay, 
swampy soil, quicksand or land too difficult to 
drain are equally bad. 

Drainage. — School grounds should be well 
drained on and below the surface. For this rea- 
son it is desirable to establish a ground level not 
more than three feet above that maintained for 
streets. A gradual slope away from the building 
toward street or alley in a southerly or easterly 
direction or well directed drainage to a catch 
basin is desirable. Sub-soil water should be car- 
ried from below the depth of the cellar by sub- 
soil rock and stone or tile drainage to the sewer- 
age system. It is desirable that such drainage 
be run entirely about the foundation of the build- 
ing. Sub-soil drains should be attached to the 
sewer by a flap-valve with a deep water seal. 



19 




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School Architecture 

Playgrounds. — School authorities are agreed 
that a minimum of 30 square feet of playground 
should be allowed for every child. The regula- 
tions of the English board of education demand a 
quarter of an acre of playground for every 250 
children and a minimum of 30 square feet of open 
space per child. An edict of the Prussian min- 
ister of education requires that the playgrounds 
surrounding schoolhouses contain three square 
metres (3.5888 square yards) of surface for every 
school child. The American standard ranges 
from 30 to 50 square feet per pupil. 

Playgrounds should always adjoin the school 
building. They should be sunny, dry and shel- 
tered from winds. Gravel or cinders, if well 
drained and well rolled, will make an excellent 
covering for the ground. Large boulders, re- 
cesses and obstructions should be avoided. Play- 
grounds should be arranged so that every part is 
visible to the person in charge. Boys and girls 
play best if separated. A rain shed or covering 
may be provided. Playgrounds for elementary 
schools should be fitted with a few appliances. 

In congested cities where outside playgrounds 
cannot be provided, roof playgrounds may be sub- 
stituted. These should be surrounded by a para- 
pet at least four feet high and covered with coarse 
netting over steel supports. Ample and safe 
stairway facilities must be provided. 



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22 



School Architecture 

Fences. — The American board fence ought 
never surround a school and its grounds. Open 
iron fences will permit a thorough circulation of 
air and enable sunlight to completely cover the 
school yard. Neat and unclimbable fences at the 
rear and side of the grounds are desirable. 




23 




24 



// 

THE BUILDING 

Arrangement. — An observation of the prime 
uses to which a school building is to be put must 
regulate the disposition of classrooms, corridors, 
stairways and other conveniences. The final ar- 
rangement ought never be accepted hastily or 
without due consideration of hygienic and sani- 
tary requirements. In brief, floor plans must al- 
ways (1) suit the scholastic and administrative 
needs of the school, (2) conform with latest prac- 
tice in economical, safe and sanitary construction, 
(3) assure satisfactory and ready maintenance. 

An architect ought to know as intimately as a 
superintendent of schools the uses to which the 
building is to be put. He ought to know without 
fail that the kindergarten rooms belong on the 
first floor, the manual training and domestic sci- 
ence rooms on the ground floor, the auditorium 
on the first floor, the principal's room on the first 
floor, natural science laboratories on the top floor, 
art and mechanical drawing rooms to the north 
sides of the building, staircases adjoining an outer 
wall, classrooms on one or both sides of the cor- 
ridors, playrooms in the basement, etc. 

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School Architecture 

With the classroom as the unit upon which 
the entire arrangement is to be made, the architect 
must use such a plan as will best meet all the ap- 
parent needs. Location and site, number of pu- 
pils, course of study, kind of school, etc., will 
make an arrangement in one of these basic shapes 
necessary: 



□ 



Sctus^re Rectangle 




EHLU 



E-Form 



H-Form 



L-Form 



TJ-Form 



VY 




V-Form 



Y-Form 



Wide Angle 



27 




38 



School Architecture 

Exterior. — While a rule for the exterior de- 
sign of a school building cannot be indicated artis- 
tically or scientifically, general beauty and archi- 
tectural completeness and simplicity can be pro- 
vided by every good architect. The exterior of 
a building must only express the interior perfec- 
tion and should never be supplied at the cost of 
some absolute necessity. It is a sham to decorate 
an imperfect shell with an imposing exterior. 

The material of construction should, primarily, 
be stone or brick. This will not only lend itself 
readily to a definite style of architecture, but will 
be found more fireproof and lasting. A wooden 
building should only be erected when brick or 
stone is not easily obtained or is too expensive. 

Accommodations. — While no two school 
buildings must provide exactly the same accom- 
modations, certain fundamental provisions are 
necessary for both elementary and secondary 
schools. 

Thus, elementary schools require : 1, class- 
rooms ; 2, cloakrooms ; 3, principal's room ; 4, 
toilet rooms ; 5, boiler rooms ; 6, kindergarten ; 
7, playroom ; 8, assembly hall. The following are 
desirable : 1, waiting room ; 2, teachers' room ; 3, 
gymnasium; 4, janitor's room; 5, storeroom; 6, 
library. High schools may, on account of the 
course of study, require commercial rooms, lab- 
oratories, art and music rooms, science lecture 
rooms and manual art rooms. 

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School Architecture 

Foundations. — Foundations serve two pur- 
poses ; they support the superstructure and en- 
close a suitable basement. In serving the first, 
their size and strength will depend entirely upon 
the weight to be carried. This must vary in 
every case and can readily be computed by an 
efficient engineer. To supply a proper basement, 
foundation walls must allow sufficient light and 
must be proof against dampness. An application 
of pitch or boiled asphalt will make the outside 
of a foundation wall impervious. 

Stone with flat bed should be the material of 
construction selected wherever expedient. Next 
to this comes the concrete wall and finally the 
clinkerlike vitrified brick. The ordinary brick is 
very apt to be moist. Concrete for footings, 
where clean gravel ojgjbroken stone can be ob- 
tained, is preferable to stone footings. Where 
basements are impracticable for small schools, the 
foundation walls should be at least twelve inches 
thick, should be carried below the frost line, ex- 
tend not less than three feet above the grade and 
be ventilated with adjustable shutters. 

Height. — In the congested districts of large 
cities, it becomes impossible to confine buildings 
to a height of two stories. While, thus, the three 
or four story building is a necessity, a higher 
schoolhouse should never be permitted. Two 
story buildings are safer, more readily managed, 
and healthier for both girls and boys. Even 

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School Architecture 

though the three story building can be made tire- 
proof and may be cheaper and more compact, the 
two story building is safer and architecturally as 
beautiful. 

Enlargement. — A new building can be pre- 
pared for enlargement vertically or horizontally 
in the original plans. This in growing commun- 
ities is desirable and should never be forgotten. 
Additions can best be made horizontally without 
embarrassing an entire school. Vertical additions 
are expensive because they require the raising of 
a roof or an entire floor and make the building 
temporarily uninhabitable. Horizontal additions 
require only the breaking through walls for doors 
and the connection of roof and joists. 

Aspect. — The classroom is the unit upon 
which the aspect of a school building must de- 
pend. Since sunlight is the greatest disinfectant 
and preservative of life, it is desirable that the di- 
rect rays of the sun penetrate every room at least 
once a day. While it is impossible that every 
room be exposed to sunlight, a careful arrange- 
ment of corridors, assembly halls, drawing rooms, 
libraries, etc., in the northern portions of a build- 
ing will allow the placing of a maximum number 
of classrooms on the sunny sides of a building. 

North, northwest, west, southwest and south 
are in this order the least desirable aspects for 
school buildings. The lack of sun on the north 

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School A rchitecture 

and northwest sides and its intensity on the west 
and southwest and south argue against these as- 
pects. Southeast, east and northeast exposures 
are most desirable. Each will allow sunlight 
during the best portion of the day. During the 
midday the sun is entirely off the eastern sides of 
the building or strikes a southeast aspect almost 
vertically. 

Entrances. — The number and width of en- 
trances and exits to school buildings is deter- 
mined in nearly all cases by the general building 
laws. As a rule, it may be said that entrances 
should be wide, equipped with two doors and 
should lead directly to the stairways and corri- 
dors. Doors should be hung to swing outward 
and should be equipped with latches that are lock- 
able on the outside only. A door Z l / 2 feet wide 
is sufficient for each 150 pupils. A school of one 
hundred children should have two entrances fitted 
with double doors, each 3 l / 2 feet wide. The Mas- 
sachusetts law requires twenty inches for every 
one hundred persons and not less than four feet 
to each entrance. 

There should be one entrance to the basement 
from the outside, not connected with the regular 
school entrances and exits. This should be used 
by the janitor only and is necessary on account 
of the heating system. It should be located near 
the boiler room, though not directly opening in- 

35 




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School Architecture 

to the same. A general understanding of the 
matter will prevent mechanics and repair men 
from stumbling unnecessarily through corridors 
during school hours and gives janitors the in- 
dependence they deserve. 

Vestibules. — Vestibules placed on a level 
with the school grounds are desirable. They 
should be equipped with double swing doors, tile, 
cement or asphalt floors, and be securely covered. 
They will protect the inevitable early arrival and 
prevent largely the tracking in of snow and mud. 
They should be as wide as the regular entrance. 

Corridors. — The shape and formation of a 
building will determine the size and extent of the 
corridors to be provided. In large buildings the 
central corridor with rooms on either side is 
slowly being replaced by the corridor with rooms 
on but one side. The latter with other advant- 
ages affords better light and ventilation and facil- 
itates the correct disposition of classrooms. While 
this plan increases the relative cubic area, thus 
ultimately increasing the cost of the building, its 
very successful use and the general brightness of 
the entire building argue forcibly in its favor. 

Corridors should always be wide, well venti- 
lated, lighted and heated. The minimum width 
should be 11 feet, although 13 feet in larger build- 
ings would be preferable. Corridors in very large 
buildings 18 feet in width are desirable. 




38 



School Architecture 

For all practical purposes, cement is the most 
desirable flooring in corridors. It is fireproof, 
can be easily cleaned, and wears almost indefin- 
itely. Care should be taken, however, that the 
ridges, if any are introduced, are made as shallow 
as possible and run straight across or lengthwise 
with the corridor. Deep ridges or ridges running 
opposite to the direction usually taken in sweeping 
are not easily cleaned, and may become dirt res- 
ervoirs. Granite, mosaic or asphalt pavement 
with base boards of marble are excellent. The 
ceilings need be no higher than classrooms, but 
should be light and attractive. Walls should be 
light, and may be finished in plaster, in glazed 
brick or ordinary brick coated with white enamel. 
A picture moulding may be placed in all corridors. 

The corridors on each floor ought to be 
equipped with a supplementary sink enclosed in 
a closet with double doors, swinging out. Both 
hot and cold water ought to be supplied for clean- 
ing purposes. Wainscoting may be either of 
glazed brick, tile, wood or painted burlap. The 
last two are most practical and economical. 
Artificial light ought to be liberally provided be- 
cause of the increased night use of buildings. 
Especially vestibules, landings and staircases need 
artificial light. 

Staircases. — Absolute utility and security 
must be guaranteed in the building of staircases. 
This must be ensured for normal and abnormal 

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School Architecture 

use, and must be based on the most scientific and 
approved practice. Thus, staircases must neces- 
sarily be well lighted, and be sufficient to accom- 
modate all pupils at all times. Two staircases 
should always be provided in every building 
which houses more than 150 pupils. These should 
adjoin an outside wall, be as widely separated as 
possible, easily accessible and conspicuous. 

The risers of stairs should be Q]/> inches, with 
13-inch treads, in primary schools, and in other 
schools, 7-inch risers with 13-inch treads. A min- 
imum of five feet is generally recognized as the 
correct width of staircases. This may be in- 
creased by V/ 2 feet per 100 additional pupils. Long 
flights of consecutive stairs should always be 
broken by horizontal landings, which should be at 
least V/z times the width of the stairs. Triangu- 
lar and circular stairs should give way to fire- 
proof box staircases or open staircases with 
balustrade. 

Under all conditions, staircases should be ab- 
solutely fireproof. This includes not only walls 
and casings, but the skeleton and body of the 
stairs themselves. The most modern schools are 
now provided with iron runners set in solid brick 
walls, with treads of concrete, cut stone or as- 
phalt. They may be covered with wood, rubber 
or metallic safety treads and provided with fire 
cut-offs. Staircases should be arranged near en- 
trances and should be run to top floor when once 

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School Architecture 

begun. Windows should be about four feet above 
the level of the stair landing. 

Every stairway should be equipped with a 
hand railing, running the entire length without 
any break at the landings. This should be plain, 
smooth and preferably made of hard wood. Three 
inches diameter will allow the average child an 
easy grasp of a wood hand rail. The iron pipe 
railing, though cold and uninviting, is often used 
and should be about V/x inches in diameter. It 
is usually supported on wrought iron brackets 
with the ends turned back to the wainscoting. 
Thirty-six inches is about the right height of the 
average hand railing. 

The so-called "Duplex" or double reverse 
stairways in use in the public schools of New 
York City are excellent and permit of great sav- 
ing in floor space. They are of steel construc- 
tion with cut stone or asphalt filled treads. On 
the corridor side they are enclosed from top to 
bottom with partitions made of wire glass set in 
steel frames. Access is had to the floor landings 
by means of fireproof doors, fitted with automatic 
check and spring. As the height of the ordinary 
story in New York schools, including the thick- 
ness of floor construction, is 15 feet 6 inches, suffi- 
cient room is obtained to place a landing midway. 
The stairways permit a double rank of pupils to 
ascend and descend at the same time without in- 
terfering with each other. The stairways are 4 

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School Architecture 

feet wide, each permitting two pupils to walk 
abreast. 

Wainscoting. — Wainscoting on account uf 
the hard wear of lower walls may be distributed 
liberally in corridors, cloakrooms, etc. Tile, 
wood and painted burlap make a good surface. 
Tile does not. scratch or smear and is dust and 
vermin proof. Hard plaster, painted four coats 
of lead and oil in a soft gray color and finished 
without gloss is likewise good. 

Woodwork. — All woodwork used in the finish 
of halls, corridors or classrooms of school build- 
ings ought to be primarily simple. This simplicity 
ought to especially tend to the avoidance of heavy, 
deep cut mouldings, abnormal window sashes, or 
beading unnecessarily large. While most of such 
woodwork can and ought to be dusted regularly, 
proper care in its first installation can reduce this 
to a minimum. 

There should, of course, in all cases be no 
radical departure from the dull natural wood fin- 
ish. Oak, ash, cherry, birch or pine for interior 
woodwork can be made to look excellent in the 
natural finish. If a cheap material is used which 
requires painting, the color will follow naturally 
to harmonize with the wall coloring. Soft or 
yellow pine should be shellaced to prevent its 
darkening in time. 

Elevators. — Only the largest buildings in 
congested districts of large cities require eleva- 

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School Architecture 

tors. A freight elevator is rarely if ever needed. 
Elevators should be installed in sizes proportion- 
ate to their future use. They should be mod- 
ern in design, equipped with the latest and best 
safety appliances and installed according to the 
laws which apply. 

The Massachusetts building law provides : "All 
elevator shafts and light wells, unless built of 
brick, must be filled in flush between the wooden 
studs with fireproof materials, or lined with 
metal or plastered on metallic lathing as may be 
directed by the inspector, and all woodwork in- 
side of such shafts or wells be lined with tin 
plate, lock-jointed." 

Partitions. — It has been found at times desir- 
able to install in small assembly rooms and kin- 
dergartens movable partitions or sliding walls. An 
assembly hall can thus temporarily be turned in- 
to a classroom, while small kindergarten rooms 
may become large accommodation rooms. Un- 
doubtedly, the idea is a good one, but should be 
introduced with care and only where needed. 

Basement. — Unless some other special provi- 
sion has been made, the basement should contain 
playrooms for boys and girls, general toilet 
rooms, school baths, gymnasium, cooking classes, 
manual training rooms, heating and ventilating 
apparatus, boiler rooms, coal storage, janitor's 
room, etc. 

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School Architecture 

Basements should always be high and well 
lighted. A clear ten-foot ceiling or a thirteen- 
foot ceiling in which an allowance of three feet 
is made for ventilating ducts and steam coils will 
suffice. To assure ample light, the top of the 
foundation should rise at least three feet above 
the ground level. Most authorities urge that 
basements extend five feet above the ground. 
Floors of basements should, without exception, 
be of asphalt or concrete. The latter should be 
surfaced with a hard, tough cement. If wooden 
floors are tolerated, they should be laid on a con- 
crete bed. 

When manual training and domestic science 
rooms are located in the basement, the basement 
should become the ground floor. The floor level 
need not be more than two feet below the ground 
level. In any case, the basement should be acces- 
sible from outdoors. 

Every basement must be dry to insure the 
health of children. To effect this a drain or catch 
basin must be fitted in every basement with a 
good valve or back water gate. Floors must be 
properly sloped in the direction of the basin, thus 
securing prompt drainage at all times. 

Plumbing-. — It is absolutely necessary to re- 
member in the installation of plumbing that 
school children use toilets and water troughs more 
severely than any other class of individuals. For 
this reason sewers, waste-pipes, traps and closet 

49 




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50 



School Architecture 

fixtures must be of special weight and thickness 
to withstand the test of severe use. This is pos- 
sibly the first and only rule to be remembered in 
school plumbing. For the most part the practice 
generally accepted for ordinary plumbing applies 
to installations in school buildings. 

Nevertheless, the argument for open plumbing 
must be recalled for emphasis. Plumbing 
should be open, that is, not enclosed in the wall, 
be that supply, waste or vent pipe. This is mere- 
ly a precaution for easy attention in time of neces- 
sity. Wherever practicable drains and waste 
pipes should be supported above the basement 
floor by masonry, concrete piering or proper sus- 
pensions from the ceiling. Lead and other pipes, 
which, if it is possible, should never be run 
through classrooms, may be bronzed or enameled 
without the necessity of expensive nickle-plate or 
brass piping. 

Just previous to handing over the building to 
the local school authorities, architects ought to 
prepare a final and correct sketch of the entire 
sewer and drain pipe system. In clue time this 
ought to become the property of the school— in 
fact it ought to be one of its most important rec- 
ords. The stranger who attempts to study the 
layout for repair purposes will, without doubt 
at some future day, treasure this sketch. 

Drinking Fountains. — It is a great mistake 
to use wash sinks, or rather combine wash sinks 

51 




52 



School Architecture 

with drinking fountains in school corridors. Wash 
sinks should be confined to washroom or specially 
enclosed recesses in walls. Drinking fountains 
specially provided with or without a constant 
stream of water are good. They prevent every 
possibility of the transmission of contagious dis- 
ease. Drinking fountains are made in a variety 
of designs, artistically finished and pleasing. 

Deafening 1 . — Floors and walls may be effect- 
ively made sound-proof by so-called deafening 
quilt. Thus the disturbing noises of one class- 
room will not penetrate and annoy the adjoining 
room, while classes may move through corridors 
almost unheard. To accomplish this, walls and 
partitions must be carefully lined with the deaf- 
ener, lapped at the joints. This deafener must 
never be punctured by nails or piping except 
where absolutely necessary. This is to prevent 
the telephonic conduction of sounds through or 
around the deafener and make the isolation as 
complete as possible. Deafeners should be unin- 
flammable, moth, vermin and insect-proof, and 
non-decaying. Kindergartens, manual training 
rooms and music rooms are defectively built if 
not sound-deadened. 

Fire Protection. — Exits, doors, stairways, 
corridors and classrooms should be so arranged 
that at any time an entire building can be emptied 
in three or four minutes. Rarely, except in the 
case of an explosion, does a fire gain headway in 

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School Architecture 

less 'time. An explosion can, of course, only be 
taken as a rare exception and lire and panic must 
be dealt with. 

Exits, doors, stairways, corridors, etc., if prop- 
erly constructed, can be made fireproof or at least 
guarantee a resistance of intense heat for many 
minutes. Where appropriations will permit, brick 
or stone exteriors, concrete or tile flooring and 
walls, iron staircases with asphalt treads, together 
with stand-pipes, fire hose and fire escapes will 
render a building ordinarily safe. Fire extin- 
guishers, pails, etc., are good, but must be usable 
and accessible. 

Fire escapes, or rather, emergency stairs, 
should be provided on the outer walls adjoining 
corridors. Fire sprinklers in basements will add 
to the safety of the entire structure. Fireproofing 
of wood trim is useless because these woods 
gather moisture and lose strength while fireproof 
paints peel off rapidly. If the rules laid down 
for ordinary building were followed, or if boards 
of education and architects always remembered 
the fire danger, buildings would be more fireproof 
and danger of fire greatly reduced. 

Attics. — Attics should be made water-tight 
and heat-proof. A flooring should be laid 
throughout to prevent unnecessary radiation of 
heat from classrooms and the penetration of cold 
from roofs during the winter months. They may 
be low, but should always be equipped with ample 

55 




56 



School Architecture 

skylight when used. A brick fire wall ought to 
cut off sections every 75 feet. 

Roofs. — The style of architecture employed 
will always determine the nature of the roof. 
Roofs may be flat or angled. Flat roofs are un- 
questionably cheaper, more easily repaired and 
safer. Slate or tile is desirable for angled roofs. 
Tile can be secured in black, green or red, but is 
more expensive than slate. It is durable and at- 
tractive and has been used with great success. 
Flat roofs can be covered with an uninflammable 
composition, cemented, tinned and gravelled. 

Fortunately, the cut up and angled roofs are 
becoming obsolete. On economic grounds, these 
roofs are expensive ; artistically and architectural- 
ly, they are an eyesore to a community. Roof 
gutters are best made of copper, with vertical 
water conductors of galvanized iron, copper or 
brass, the first two to be preferred. Where tile is 
used, a vitreous tile lining bedded in asphalt or 
concrete is best. 

Cost. — It is impossible to compute absolutely 
the cost of any school building without definitely 
stipulating the materia'l and labor to be used. 
While cost is the first and probably the most diffi- 
cult question to be answered, it is likewise the 
most inaccurate, depending largely upon con- 
ditions to be dealt with. It is for this 
reason that no one but the local architect can 
tell what a building of a certain capacity will cost 

57 




58 



School Architecture 

or how far a stipulated sum of money will go 
toward the erection of a desired school building. 

This is largely due to the variation in different 
sections of the country of the labor conditions, 
the accessibility to building material centers, etc. 
Again, much depends upon the class of building 
desired. Some boards want the plainest and 
cheapest construction possible, while others de- 
sire pretentious architecture and some elegance in 
interior design and finish. Any attempt to give 
an estimate as to the probable cost must be based 
upon an average, well designed and well con- 
structed building. An average or ordinary condi- 
tion must also be assumed as to the facilities at 
command in securing labor and material and the 
natural surroundings and conditions of the build- 
ing site. 

Per Cubic Foot. The average cost on twenty- 
five first-class grammar and primary school build- 
ings, erected in the city of Boston during the 
period of 1895 and 1905, was 20 cents per cubic 
foot. The cost ranged from the lowest, 16 cents, 
to the highest, 24 cents. In Chicago the cost 
ranged from 20 to 24 cents, making an average 
cost of 22 cents per cubic foot. In St. Louis, Mo., 
the average cost on fifteen school buildings 
erected during the past seven years was 15*/ cents 
per cubic foot. The average for the three cities 
is about 19 cents. 



59 




60 



School A rchitecture 

Per Pupil. The cost of thirty-three grammar 
and primary schools in the city of Boston erected 
during the period of 1895 to 1905, ranged from 
$121.64 to $203.65 per pupil, or an average of 
$160.00 per pupil. In Chicago, 111., during a period 
of three years, on seven buildings the cost has 
averaged $174.00 per pupil ; in St. Louis, Mo., dur- 
ing a period of seven years the cost on fifteen 
buildings has averaged $123.00 per pupil. The 
average for the three cities is about $152.00. 

Per Room. The cost per room for a first-class 
grammar and primary school ranged from $3,000 
to $5,000 per room, in accordance with the varia- 
tion in the cost of labor and material and the 
natural conditions of the building site. 



61 




ROCKEFELLER HALL, TiRYN MAWR COLLEGE. 
Cope & Stewardson, Architects, Philadelphia. 



62 



/// 

THE CLASS ROOM 

Standards. — As the class is the unit about 
which all organization and administration of the 
school revolves, so the classroom is the unit upon 
which the planning of the school building depends. 
And as the size and formation of classes depends 
upon the individual welfare of the single child so 
the life, safety and convenience of the child estab- 
lish ultimately the standards for the planning of 
classrooms. 

It has been agreed generally by architects and 
authorities on the subject that classrooms should 
have a minimum of fifteen square feet of floor 
space, 200 cubic feet of air space per pupil, and 
be planned to accommodate a maximum of forty 
students. The room proper is oblong in shape 
and receives its light only from the long wall on 
the left. Aisles are run through single rows of 
seats with the teacher's desk to the front facing 
the pupils. 

On account of the fluctuation in the sizes of 
classes and the demand for large and small rooms 
alike, the question of classrooms for primary and 
grammar schools has reduced itself to three 
standard sizes : 

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School Architecture 

A. 22 x 32 feet; 40 pupils, 8 rows, 5 each. 

B. 24 x 32 feet; 48 pupils, 8 rows, 6 each. 

C. 28 x 32 feet; 56 pupils, 8 rows, 7 each. 
Rooms izy 2 feet high are arranged in this 

manner to give every pupil an easy view of the 
teacher and blackboard. Vice versa the arrange- 
ment gives the teacher perfect control of the chil- 
dren with all in view at a glance. The form al- 
lows better lighting, heating and ventilation. In 
like manner the sizes allow the grouping of rooms 
near staircases, and guarantee regular and wide 
corridors. The width allowed between desks is 
usually twenty to twenty-four inches. Between 
the blackboard and its adjoining row of desks 3 
to 3 l / 2 feet should be allowed. Thirty-two feet is 
the maximum length of classrooms. 

In Boston the standard size of classrooms has 
been fixed at 23x29 feet in the clear. 

In New York City, classrooms have been ar- 
ranged on the German standard: 22 feet wide, 30 
feet long, 15 feet, 6 inches high, in the clear; 40 
pupils. 

Grade rooms in Chicago public schools have, 
until recently, measured 26', 6" x 33', 0". At pres- 
ent the standard is 24', 0" x 34', 0" ; for a maxi- 
mum of 48 pupils. 

The St. Louis standard requires that class- 
rooms be 24', 0" by 32', 6" with not less than 12' 
clear story height. The maximum seating ca- 
pacity is 48 pupils. 

65 




a. 



66 



School Architecture 

In Detroit, 24' by 32' is accepted as correct. 

In Baltimore all schoolrooms are planned to be 
26' x 32' with 12', 6" to 13' 0" ceilings. 

In Cleveland two standard sizes have been 
evolved : 24' x 32' and 26' x 32'. 

In Philadelphia the standard classroom meas- 
ures 24' x 32' xl3'. 

The Seattle standard classroom is 25' x 32' and 
13' story height. 

Lighting. — The importance and the difficulty 
of the subject of lighting is self-evident. Primar- 
ily, light must come to classrooms without ob- 
struction or interruption. It has been said that 
every pupil ought to be able to see the sky from 
his desk. A German authority asserts that 50 
per cent, of the floor space should be open to the 
sky. Under ordinary conditions, the rule that ad- 
joining structures should not be nearer than twice 
the height of the school building is safe. This 
cannot be maintained in crowded cities where 
buildings are high, but is binding on the location 
of trees and like. 

The admission of light to the classroom, after 
its pure obtainance, is next important. Accord- 
ingly the window area should be one-fifth of the 
floor space, assuring a desk illumination of fifty 
candle metres. Where rooms are wider than 
twenty-two feet and the light is brought in from 
one side only, the window area should be at least 
one-fourth of the floor space. An authority sug- 

67 




68 



School Architecture 

gests as a good rule the provision of at least .15 
square metres (1.6 square feet or 233 square 
inches) of window surface for each pupil. 

Light should come to the pupil from one side 
only, never the front, and pass over the left 
shoulder. It ought never come from three or 
two sides because of the cross light and excessive 
cold window area. While bilateral lighting is at 
times tolerated, especially when rooms are lo- 
cated in the north side of the building, the eyes of 
the teacher are to be considered as also the eyes 
of the pupils. Light from the rear throws a 
shadow on the work of the pupil and must al- 
ways be softened in favor of the teacher. Pro- 
vided care has been exercised, light may enter 
from one or groups of windows. 

Windows. — Windows and their number de- 
pend on the rules laid down for the lighting of 
classrooms. Thus window space should be one- 
fifth the area of the floor space and in unfavor- 
able light one-fourth of the floor space. They 
should always be placed to the right of the teacher 
while facing a class, square top in shape, and set 
about three feet from the floor level. To facili- 
tate the diffusion of light, windows should ex- 
tend to within six inches of the ceiling. 

During recent years, architects have intro- 
duced the so-called group system of lighting 
schoolrooms. As against the regularly placed 
windows the latter have been drawn together in- 

69 




70 



School . I rchitSi lure 

to groups, and separated only by iron mullions of 
minimum thickness. Thus heavy shadows be- 
tween windows have been avoided as also thi 
crossing of dearly defined lighl rays. The plan 
allows a maximum of window surface and obvi 
ates even the thoughl of bilateral or diffused 
light. I lie window can be worked into one of 
the standard styles of archite< tit re with the same 
,ii, ce - as the evenly disl ributed window. 

Generally speaking, all window casings and 
ledges may be beveled .-it least 40 degrees. Win- 
dow sills may be "toil ted. 'I lie corners of the 
[ambs should be rounded, where wood casings are 
omitted, and protected by a metal strip set Hush 
with the plaster. Bui one large pane for the up 
per and one for the lower section oi the window 
is to be preferred, although there is no objection 
to .mall panes divided with muni ins. 'I he pupil 
i al farl hei I removed from a window should be 
distant not more than one and one hall times 
the heighl of the window. 

At t imes and under cei tain unfavorable li >cal 
conditions prism glass may be employed to ai Lire 
the steady introduction of pure daylight. Where 
the proximity and heighl of neighboring buildings 
cause a dimness of lighl prism gla can due, i 
light into buildings to a considerable distance. 
'I he prii in s will al o equalize and diffuse lighl 
throughoul a room so thai each pupil may enjoj 
the same mien h ■ of lighl in e pe< live oi his or 

71 




72 



School Architecture 

her location. As against artificial light prism 
glass entails only the first cost of installation and 
consequently not a continual expenditure. 

Window Shades. — The sunlight breaking in- 
to a room with unrestricted power must certainly 
be softened and diffused by window shades. Sun- 
light passing through a perfectly white semi- 
opaque shade will create a decidedly creamy color 
leaning toward the yellow orange. In order to 
overcome this yellowish light and to produce 
more real pure light the window shades should 
be colored in a light blueish gray or a gray green, 
thereby neutralizing and diffusing white light 
without a glare throughout the room. On south- 
ern windows two shades, one opaque, the other 
translucent, are desirable. 

Modern ingenuity has created adjustable fix- 
tures which complete the service of window 
shades. These can be made to cover the entire 
window at one time, can be raised and lowered 
to any point or can be made to cut off either half 
of the window very readily. They are a great 
improvement over the ordinary shade and can be 
installed at a very low cost. 

Floors. — Unquestionably a floor of reinforced 
concrete or hollow tile, set on iron beams and 
forming the substantial part of the ceiling below, 
is the ideal construction. Such floors are, how- 
ever, not always obtainable and the ordinary 
wooden joist must be used. Wooden floors should 

73 




74 



School Architecture 

always be of mill construction, and lined with an 
approved deafening" material. 

Selected maple makes the best flooring for 
schoolrooms. This, if matched, blind nailed, and 
laid with as few joints as possible, will prove very 
satisfactory. It is sanitary and clean and can be 
swept without trouble. Georgia or Florida pine, 
if comb-grained, stands second to maple, but must 
likewise be of selected stock. In specifying 
Georgia or Florida pine, care should be taken to 
limit the width to two and one-half inches or a 
very poor floor will be obtained. Flooring of 
rooms above cold air chambers should be care- 
fully protected with a double thickness of non- 
conducting deafening quilt to prevent a transmis- 
sion of cold to the Floor above. Where the floor 
meets the wainscoting- or base board, the juncture 
piece can very readily be curved concavely to fa- 
cilitate cleaning and prevent an avoidable accumu- 
lation of dirt. 

Ceilings. — The same rules for iireprooflng and 
sound deafening which are laid down for floors 
and walls, should lie maintained for ceilings. A 
hard plaster, such as adamant, imperial or rock- 
wall, applied to metal lathing is to be preferred. 
Wooden ceilings are frequently used, but cannot 
be recommended. Metal ceilings are good and 
can be obtained in simple and ornamental designs. 
Where these are not introduced a smooth, well 
finished plaster surface should be obtained. In 

75 




76 



School Architecture 

Massachusetts the law provides that the entire 
basement ceiling be plastered on metal lath. Ceil- 
ings should not be less than 13 J^ feet in height. 
Their color should be preferably a creamish gray. 

Doors. — All classroom doors should primarily 
assure convenience and reliability for use in call- 
ing and dismissing classes. Again they should be 
absolutely under the control of the teacher, pref- 
erably near her. One door will give a teacher 
better control over a class than two. A second 
door will necessarily open upon benches and 
cause undesirable room crossing. With the ward- 
robe at the rear of the room the door is best 
placed near the front in the open space between 
desks occupied by the teacher and pupils respec- 
tively. 

Doors should be about three feet wide, hung 
in a substantial frame, be strong and durable. 
They should be of the ordinary height, with a 
knob convenient to the child's grasp. While many 
authorities demand that doors swing outward, 
classroom doors which should be under the con- 
trol of the teacher in case of a panic, may safely 
open into the room. What loss of life has oc- 
cured in the schools of the country has been due 
to the fact that teachers were unable to control 
the rush of children from rooms during a panic. 

German school authorities believe that doors 
opening into corridors add to the safety of a 
classroom. The door is hung on the wall in 
classroom and swings nut into the corridor. The 

77 




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78 



School Architcctuve 

door frame instead of standing square, as ordinar- 
ily found, is set on the bias away from, and in 
the direction in which the door will swing. It 
must be remembered that school walls have be 
come very wide on account of the number of 
ventilating duets and other piping which is placed 
therein. Thus the angle between the wall and 
the floor is reduced to 50 degrees, while only one- 
half of the door projects beyond the wall line. 
The best practice in the United States requires 
thai the door be hung so thai it can be swung 
hack againsi the corridor wall, and altogether 
out of the way. 

Quarter -awed oak makes the best material for 
doors. This when well oiled and varnished wears 

almost indefinitely. A plate can be placed about 
the door knob to prevent smearing, and one at 
the base will protect the wood from accidental 
kicks. A glass panel in the upper part of the 
door is a confession of a poorly lighted corridor. 
This should be avoided where possible. When- 
ever tolerated frosted glass should be preferred to 
the ordinary transparent pane. Transoms are un- 
necessary and disturb the efficienl working of the 
ventilating system. 

Blackboards. — Blackboards are invariably 

placed on the front and right hand wall of the 
classroom. They are rarely placed on the rear 



79 




80 



School Architecture 

wall because of the absorption of light, and should 
never be placed to the left, between windows. 
The glare from windows puts this wall space into 
a dark shadow which is almost impenetrable. The 
strain on pupils working in their seats is severe — 
almost blinding on the sunny side of a building. 

There are three standard types of blackboards: 
1. The board obtained by covering a concrete or 
ordinary wall surface with liquid slating. 2. The 
wood pulp board. 3. The natural slate black- 
board. Liquid slating is possibly the third best 
of the three types. While cheaper than wood 
pulp or slate, its surface must be renewed once a 
year and then often cannot be washed or properly 
cleaned. Wood pulp is satisfactory and very 
much cheaper than slate. Slate makes the best 
blackboard. Both slate and pulp can be secured 
in a dull, dead black, but must be kept so, and 
should never be allowed to become gray. A new 
artificial slate made of ground slate and cement 
mounted on metal lathing is being introduced with 
success. 

The standard height of blackboard surface is 
four feet. This in primary grades is placed two 
feet, two inches from the floor ; in grammar 
grades and high schools two feet, six inches. The 
top of the blackboard should never be more than 
six and one-half feet from the floor and not ex- 
tend into dark or useless corners. 



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School Architecture 

Natural slate, the ideal blackboard surface, 
may be obtained for blackboards in widths rang- 
ing from 24 inches to 48 inches. The standard 
widths are 36 inches, 42 inches, by three feet to 
six feet in length. The slabs can be purchased to 
fit close-jointed and fill wall spaces exactly. They 
cost about twenty-five cents per square foot placed 
on the wall. 

The artificial blackboards can be obtained in 
greater lengths and similar widths. They should 
be placed preferably on a wall with expanded 
metal lath. Artificial blackboards cost about six- 
teen cents per square foot. 

Chalk troughs about three inches wide, cov- 
ered with a movable wire netting, should be 
placed under all blackboard surface. Where it is 
found that blackboards affect the lighting of a 
room, spring roller shades of a neutral color may 
be drawn over the surface while not in use. Cab- 
inets of disappearing blackboards, one upon the 
other, and about six in number, are desirable in 
science lecture rooms of high schools. 

Wall Coloring — If the lighting of a school- 
room is important the reflection and diffusion of 
light in the room is of equal importance. The 
standards of correct wall coloring are based en- 
tirely upon fatigue as experienced both by teacher 
and pupil and the possibility of illumination on 
unfavorable days. Again the standards exclude 

83 




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84 



School Architecture 

colors known to be light absorbent and include 
colors extensively found in nature. 

White, the presence of all light, is considered 
hygienically bad; it tires the eye by its glare and 
almost uninterrupted strength. Black, the ab- 
sence of all color, absorbs light and is equally bad. 
Opticians tell us that the eye has been made to fit 
colors equally distant from white, the presence of 
all color, and black, the absence of all color. Gray, 
a mixture of black and white, should therefore 
be the basic color for the tinting of every wall in 
the schoolhouse. It should, however, only be the 
basic color. Combinations of all other colors of 
the spectrum can be effected without the necessity 
of employing as such the cold and uninviting 
color of gray. 

The ceiling should be kept light, but never 
white or chalky. It is never touched by the rays 
of the sun, except by reflection from a mirror or 
other polished surfaces. Consequently, in the ma- 
jority of cases it will receive diffused light only. 
A tint of white, such as a cream color, which will 
aid in the downward diffusion of light, is there- 
fore most desirable. The spectral colors, orange, 
red, violet, yellow, blue and green, should never 
be used for ceiling without intense whitening. 

On the north exposure, colors can be made 
light and warm on account of the natural coldness 
of the location. On the east the colors should be 
less warm including more gray. The same is true 

85 




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School Architecture 

of the south and west rooms of the school build- 
ing. The woodwork and mouldings should be of 
some accepted hard wood, finished in its natural 
color. This can be adapted to almost any color 
combination. All space not actually needed for 
blackboards should be treated in the wall color. 
The regular oil paint will, in the long run, 
prove most satisfactory. This must and can be 
carefully stippled to prevent gloss and will retain 
its appearance and color for several years. Once 
a year this can be washed, thus producing almost 
a new surface. Water color tints can be obtained 
for less money than oil painting. In like manner 
a greater variety of shades and colors is possible. 
On the whole oil paint is more desirable, more 
sanitary, and in time cheaper. 

Picture Moulding. — Every classroom and 
corridor may be fitted with picture moulding. 
This offsets a blank wall nicely, is convenient in 
hanging pictures and may divide the decoration of 
the wall and ceiling. Picture moulding should be 
made of some hard, smooth, well grained wood 
and should be carefully fastened to the wall. 
When once begun it should be run entirely about 
a room and should be finished in harmony with 
the remaining woodwork. 

Wardrobes. — Architects and school author- 
ities agree that separate wardrobes should be pro- 
vided for classes in all school buildings. Such 
wardrobes or cloakrooms should immediately ad- 

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School Architecture 

join the classroom so that pupils can properly de- 
posit their personal belongings during school 
hours. Wardrobes should not be allowed on the 
walls of the classroom, corridors or basement. 

To the present day an agreement as to the 
best location for wardrobes relative to classrooms 
has not been reached. The best practice requires 
that they be placed to enjoy direct light from the 
outside. Doors do not open into corridors, but 
only into the classroom. This gives the teacher 
full control of classroom and wardrobe at all 
times. In like manner it assures excellent ven- 
tilation for classroom and wardrobe since the in- 
take or fresh air supply can be placed in the class- 
room and the outlet or foul air exit can be located 
in the wardrobe. This will prevent all odor from 
wet or unclean ciothing and will not necessitate 
separate ventilation. It requires two doors and 
the proper location of air registers. 

Generally wardrobes should be well lighted, 
heated and ventilated. Light should come from 
the outside. The width of each room should 
never be less than four feet, preferably about six 
feet. Its length should be proportioned to the 
number of pupils to be accommodated by the 
classroom and the style of hooks or racks to be 
provided. Hooks for clothes, shelves for pack- 
ages, stands with drip pans for umbrellas and 
rubbers, should be provided. Hooks for grammar 
schools should be placed five feet from the floor, 

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in primary schools four feet, or a variety of 
heights in all wardrobes. The hanging space is 
twenty-five feet for fifty pupils. Walls should be 
finished with a material that is easily cleaned, dis- 
infected and non-absorbent. Clothes racks, what- 
ever kind they may be, should never extend to the 
floor, to allow the thorough cleaning of the room. 

Steel lockers as wardrobes have in recent years 
been installed in high schools very extensively. 
These lockers are constructed in a variety of 
styles and are furnished with keyless locks for 
the use of the individual pupil. They are in- 
stalled in corridors and have proven most suc- 
cessful. In gymnasiums, where the storage of 
much clothing is called for, the steel locker has 
become an absolute necessity. 

A new type of wardrobe is being introduced in 
New York and Chicago, which consists of wood 
or steel cupboards, fitted with doors sliding ver- 
tically in casements. They are equipped with 
hooks and racks and so constructed that inde- 
pendent ventilation with the regular ventilation 
system is possible. While some doubt might ex- 
ist as to their practicability, they unquestionably 
effect a saving in space over the cloakroom as 
also the original cost of construction. 

Platforms. — Some difference of opinion ex- 
ists on the use of platforms. Most grade class 
platforms have been abolished as dust catchers, as 
an interference with the ready use of blackboard 

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School Architecture 

space back of the teachers' desk and as a hin- 
drance to the rule that teachers move about the 
class during school hours. In lecture and as- 
sembly rooms the platform should be low as pos- 
sible, but wide and long. 

Teachers' Wardrobe. — Where a building 
cannot include a special teachers' room, a teach- 
ers' wardrobe or case ought to be installed in 
every classroom. This ought to assure privacy, 
and must be comparatively air-tight. It should 
contain hooks and shelves and be fitted with a 
good lock. 

Bookcase. — A bookcase twelve inches deep 
should be provided in each classroom for the use 
of the teacher and the storage of supplementary 
books and other paraphernalia. It may best be 
built in one of the side walls, not conspicuously, 
and should be closed by one or two glass doors. 
A few drawers ought also be added with a cup- 
board at the bottom. 

Equipment. — A schoolhouse architect must 
necessarily be consulted in the purchase of much of 
the equipment of a schoolhouse. His varied expe- 
rience with other equipments will make his judg- 
ment valuable and his advice worthy of considera- 
tion. Some standard articles, however, such as 
school desks, manual training benches and the like, 
need hardly the expert advice of an architect. The 
average superintendent of schools has been forced 

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School Architecture 

to give the more common items his attention and 
consequently is generally well informed. 

School Furniture should always embody a 
maximum of simplicity and durability. It must 
necessarily be adapted to the uses to which it is to 
be put and must be in conformity with the best 
and most modern practice, of the day. School 
desks, whether adjustable or stationary, must be 
curved and fitted to assure the comfort and the 
good health of the pupil. The individual desk 
must be attractive in appearance, and made of 
the best hard maple or oak and flawless steel or 
iron. Its edges must be beveled, its corners 
rounded, its hinges noiseless, its varnish, japan 
and glue the best that money can buy. 

Vacuum Cleaning for schools, while still in 
its experimental stage, will undoubtedly become 
an important item of equipment in the near future. 
It is based on the idea of entirely removing dust 
and dirt from classrooms and subsequently de- 
stroying it. Briefly, a good system requires a 
vacuum producer capable of maintaining a vac- 
uum of ten inches mercury. It must be equipped 
with an air-tight and dust-proof separator of 
sufficient capacity, located preferably in the base- 
ment. A system of smooth-bore vacuum piping 
ought to be installed in the building with special 
fittings which enable the construction of a con- 
duit perfectly smooth from intake to discharge. 
The cleaning tools must, of course, be movable, 

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School Architecture 

durable and easily handled, with a suction force 
of two inches beyond the metal parts of the tool 
to assure effectiveness in corners and under desks. 
The system must assure the removal of a maxi- 
mum of dust at a minimum of cost and annoyance. 

Program Clocks and automatic bell-ringing 
systems are entirely too successful and well 
known to require argument. Large high schools 
cannot be operated without them. They work 
with almost human intelligence and are mechan- 
ically as perfect as seems possible for the pres- 
ent. Program systems require a master clock and 
secondary bells and clocks which are all con- 
trolled by the master clock. In elementary 
schools simple electric push buttons with proper 
connections with the school grounds should be 
supplied. 

Special Thermometers ought to be hung in 
every classroom and corridor of a school building 
unless a system of automatic temperature regula- 
tion is installed. When such a system is installed 
special instruments are, of course, unnecessary 
since the thermometer is always supplied with 
every thermostat. Great care ought to be exer- 
cised in the purchase of good thermometers to 
assure accuracy and relative correctness in ac- 
tion. Instruments, under identical conditions, 
will vary as much as ten degrees — a variation 
which in a schoolhouse cannot be tolerated. In 
placing the thermometers the breathing line of the 

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School Architecture 

smallest pupil ought to be taken as the maximum 
height. The thermometers ought to be shifted to 
several places to discover the degree of tempera- 
ture throughout the room. Once a year they 
ought to be gathered by the principal and tested 
for accuracy. 

Telephones which can connect the school with 
the school board office and intercommunicating 
telephones for principal to boiler rooms, teachers' 
rooms and classrooms may be provided. The 
time has come when a common understanding of 
the use of the telephone has made its installation 
desirable. Economy in installation and efficiency 
in operation are the principal requisites. 

Bulletin Boards ought to be provided in 
some conspicuous place near the entrance of every 
building. They ought to be plain and consist only 
of a frame, a wood back that will take push tacks 
and a glass door. The wood ought to be the 
natural finish and of the same material as the 
woodwork. 

Projection Apparatus ought to be planned 
for assembly rooms in elementary schools and sci- 
ence lecture rooms and auditoriums in high 
schools. The prices and varieties have made their 
installation no longer a luxury while the develop- 
ment of many studies now depends upon their 
use. Projection apparatus may consist of a 
stereopticon lantern, slides and a good, white 
spring-roller curtain. Instruments of recent 

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manufacture are equipped with an opaque pro- 
jector attachment which has proven most suc- 
cessful. 

Artificial Light. — While all classrooms 
should admit a maximum amount of light under 
extremely unfavorable conditions, dark or misty 
days in the fall of the year, or cloudy days dur- 
ing- the spring, will demand provisions for the pos- 
sible use of artificial light. It is, of course, need- 
less to say that rooms which require the use of 
artificial light on ordinary bright days condemn 
architect, superintendent of schools, and school 
board. 

Light which assures a maximum of whiteness 
is to be preferred for the artificial lighting of 
schoolrooms. Fixtures must, of course, be sus- 
pended from the ceiling and should be arranged 
so that the center of light distribution is slightly 
to the left of the longitudinal center line of the 
room and in front of the transverse center. By 
this means, each pupil will have a main source of 
light slightly to the left and front, thus obviating 
heavy shadows on his 'work. 

The Welsbach light for gas and the Tungsten 
incandescent lamp for electricity give the whitest 
and strongest light. Both are very delicate and 
frail, but last sufficiently long and prove very 
satisfactory. The latter is to be preferred because 
it does not contaminate the air by combustion. 

In Boston it is aimed to provide each desk 

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with a minimum illumination of two foot-candles 
or light equal to the illumination of two standard 
candles at a distance of one foot. 

English authorities are agreed that 300 candle 
power for 1,000 square feet of floor space, or one 
candle power for every three square feet is cor- 
rect. A German authority places the standard of 
lighting for classrooms at 10 metre candles. By 
this he understands that the source of light be 
equal to ten normal candles at a distance of one 
metre. 

Lights should never, unless very strong, be 
more than eight feet above the floor level. They 
may be augmented by prismatic globes which con- 
centrate and distribute rays very successfully. 

During the past few years the theory of dif- 
fused light has prompted reflection to the ceiling 
and subsequent diffusion to all parts of the room. 
The amount of light needed for such illumination 
can be judged when it is remembered that the 
intensity of light diminishes in the ratio of the 
inverse square of the distance. This diminution 
does not include two reflections and the possi- 
bility of imperfect reflecting surfaces. To the 
present time indirect lighting of classrooms ob- 
tained by diffusing the direct rays upon the ceil- 
ing of the classroom has been found prohibitive 
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IV 
SPECIAL ROOMS 

Assembly Rooms. — The majority of high 
schools and many grammar schools contain an as- 
sembly hall. It is intended invariably to accom- 
modate all the pupils of the school at one sitting. 
The consensus of opinion now favors the ground 
floor assembly hall. It can very conveniently be 
placed between the two wings of an H-shaped 
building or form the center section of a school 
built in the shape of an E. The entrances to the 
gallery are from the second floor. 

Several advantages are gained by placing the 
assembly hall on the ground floor. Primarily the 
assembly hall thus placed is safer in case 
of fire danger. Light can be had from 
above and from either side wall. Stair climbing 
and unnecessary disturbance in gathering classes 
is avoided. The assembly hall can be built to 
meet the needs of the school. It is most conven- 
ient for evening lectures in which the general pub- 
lic may partake. 

The average assembly rooms have a seating 
capacity of from P>00 to 600. While, of course, 
there are larger auditoriums, it would be unde- 

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sirable to provide an assembly hall with a seating 
capacity of more than 1,500. The stage must be 
proportionate to the entire whole, with ante- 
rooms on either side. At least two exits opening 
directly to the main stairways should be provided. 
Bicycle Rooms. — Where natural conditions 
favor the permanent use of bicycles a small room 
for their storage during school hours may prove 
desirable. Permanent bicycle racks are the only 
requisites. Doors and windows should be fitted 
with good locks. 

Commercial Rooms. — Commercial rooms of 
high schools are usually composed of a type- 
writer practice room and as many other rooms as 
may be needed to accommodate students of short- 
hand, bookkeeping and commercial law. They 
may be placed on the north side of the building 
in sound-deadened rooms. Special desks and 
tables for the manipulation of bulky bookkeeping 
books are desirable. 

Domestic Science Rooms. — Domestic science, 
the companion study of manual training, is like 
the latter making slow but steady progress. In 
elementary schools it more often means one cook- 
ing room for the study of food preparation and 
a classroom for the study of sewing. In larger 
schools the course has been elaborated until it 
requires a sewing room, dressmaking room, cook- 
ing room, pantry, dining room, supply room, 

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School Architecture 

teachers' room and model rooms completely 
equipped with all the furnishings of a home. The 
general provisions depend entirely on the amount 
of time and attention given the subject. 

In general, domestic science departments are 
located in the basement or ground floor at an op- 
posite extreme to the manual training department. 
The rooms may be finished like classrooms with 
the exception of oil paint for the walls. Special 
work tables about 36 inches high and 26 inches 
wide, accessible from two sides and fitted with 
cupboards for various cooking utensils and a 
Bunsen burner for each pupil ought to be sup- 
plied. Besides these the room will require ward- 
robes for each pupil, an ample sink with cold and 
hot water, a bookcase, and a refrigerator. All in 
all, the room will be large or small according to 
the number of pupils to be provided for and the 
liberality of the appropriations. 

Drawing Rooms. — Drawing rooms intended 
for either freehand or mechanical drawing follow 
generally the rules laid down for classrooms. 
They may properly be placed on the north side of 
a building and fitted with good drawing tables, 
bookcases, closets, cupboards. A good teacher's 
desk and chair ought to be provided for the in- 
structor with blackboards and provision for good 
artificial light. 

Emergency Rooms. — Large, high and ele- 
mentary schools can very profitably be equipped 

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School Architecture 

with so-called emergency room. This room is 
to be used by pupils or teachers who are sud- 
denly taken ill and require medical attention. It 
may also be used by school nurses and medical 
inspectors as an examination room. It may be 
small, but should be quiet, isolated, well venti- 
lated and easily disinfected. A comfortable 
couch, a pillow, a pair of blankets, two chairs, a 
small table, a lavatory and an emergency chest 
should be part of the equipment. Where the 
room is used as a nurse's room it must be fitted 
with a closet for supplies, a writing table and a 
filing cabinet for records. 

Gymnasiums. — The gymnasium is not as yet 
a feature of every American school building. 
The Swiss laws for building schoolhouses re- 
quire that at least 3 square metres be allotted to 
every student in the school gymnasium. The 
American standard is approximately 3,800 to 
4,000 square feet per hundred students. The 
height is fixed at 22 to 24 or 25 feet in clear. Most 
high schools of latter day construction make 
some pretense at maintaining a gymnasium. 

If proper light, heat and ventilation can be 
afforded, the ground floor or an exceptionally 
high basement is not undesirable. The vibra- 
tions and noise caused by heavy boys and girls 
makes upper floors undesirable. 

The general shape of gymnasiums is usually 
oblong, with windows in the longer walls. These 

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should provide ample light, as good if not better 
than that required for classrooms. The window 
casing should not extend lower than six feet 
above the floor to allow proper wall space for 
apparatus, radiators, etc. 

Floors should be of pitch-pine or oak, or 
even better, hard maple strips, set close and cut 
opposite to the grain of the wood. The floor 
should be absolutely dust-proof, well oiled and 
frequently cleaned. Pillars or posts of any kind 
are a nuisance. German authorities recommend 
a floor of hard asphalt set in concrete and 
covered with linoleum. This combination is firm 
and yet elastic, nearly noiseless, dust-proof, cheap 
and easily renewed. The paneling of the lower 
part of the walls is best made of smooth cement, 
painted and washable. Painted burlap may pre- 
sent a softer surface. 

Adjoining the gymnasium of high schools 
there must be dressing rooms, shower bath 
rooms and locker room. All must be propor- 
tioned to the number of pupils to be accommo- 
dated in the gymnasium in one session. Dress- 
ing rooms require benches, frosted windows, 
good ventilation and a wood floor. Shower 
baths must be so regulated and installed in such 
number that comfort and rapidity of use may be 
assured. Locker rooms may be fitted with 
lockers for each pupil in the school or merely to 
accommodate one class at a session. Steel 

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School Architecture 

lockers are well ventilated, moth and vermin- 
proof and can be fitted with keyless locks. 

Janitor's Room. — Where plans will permit 
the janitor should be given a room in the base- 
ment for repairs and private storage. This room 
should be fitted with a work bench or an ordi- 
nary manual training bench and shelving. It 
may be found very convenient to make this room 
directly accessible from the outside. 

Kindergartens. — In primary school build- 
ings it is very desirable to have two kinder- 
garten rooms, separated by sliding or folding 
doors. Kindergarten rooms are to be isolated 
so that games and music will not disturb other 
classes. Floors and walls should be sound- 
deadened. School authorities are agreed that the 
kindergarten should occupy a room convenient 
to entrance on the first floor. A circle should 
be painted on the floor and the room equipped 
with a toilet, specially low and carefully installed. 

Laboratories. — Physics, chemistry, biology 
and the other laboratories are usually grouped 
on the top floor about and adjoining the lecture 
room. The lecture room which should be 
especially prepared and equipped for lecture 
demonstration purposes ought to be very ac- 
cessible to laboratories on account of the dual 
lecture and laboratory uses of the greatest por- 
tion of the equipment. These rooms should al- 

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School Architecture 

ways be specially well heated and ventilated, 
with the addition of a skylight where necessary. 
Clay tiled floor and enameled brick walls are ex- 
cellent. 

The size of laboratories will depend entirely 
upon the completeness of the equipment and the 
number of pupils to be accommodated. One 
teacher can very nicely supervise the work of 
twenty-five pupils, though a larger number 
might be undesirable. Rooms should not be ex- 
tremely large, while crowding is similarly unde- 
sirable. With cupboards, fume chambers, ex- 
periment tables, etc., a room 30 by 40 feet will 
accommodate twenty-five pupils. 

Chemical laboratory tables should be placed 
at right angles to windows and equipped with 
sinks, gas jets, shelving and lockers. To avoid 
unnecessary plumbing and fittings, tables may 
be arranged that pupils work opposite one an- 
other. The height of the table may be about 36 
inches, the depth for two pupils about 54 inches, 
and the width about 48 inches per student. 
Pitch-pine or well treated basswood will serve 
as a non-absorbent and durable top. A "V or 
"U" shaped trough or sink 8 inches wide and 
covered with pitch and slanting to a sludge box 
whose overflow is carried to an approved safety 
cock should form the dividing line of every 
double laboratory table. One well ventilated 
and well finished fume chamber will serve for 

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School Architecture 

every seven pupils. A floor of slate, a roof of 
enameled iron, and a ventilating flue entering at 
the side to the top of the chamber, preferably ob- 
long in shape, will make the best fume chamber. 
The physics laboratory will require cup- 
boards, solid large tables, one or two small sinks 
and light-proof window shutters or shades. An 
anchored, slate covered table is very desirable. 
The equipment and cabinets will all depend en- 
tirely upon the allowance made for this depart- 
ment. Where possible, the room should be pre- 
pared with and by the advice of the instructor 
who is to use it. 

Zoological, botanical and other laboratories 
require equipment similar to the chemistry and 
physics laboratories. Tables with glass tops, 
chairs, sinks, shelves, cases, drawers, cupboards, 
as also the rooms themselves must be propor- 
tioned to the needs of the department. 

Lecture Room. — A lecture room which 
opens into all or at least the physics laboratory 
usually accompanies every natural science de- 
partment. The principal features of the room 
are a lecture and demonstration table and raised 
seats to make this table visible to each and every 
pupil. The demonstration table of a lecture 
room should be solid, 32 inches high, 144 inches 
long, 36 inches wide, contain gas jets, a sink and 
a fume chamber. The pupils' seats should be 
raised one above the other not more than one 

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School Architecture 

foot. A lantern for lecture and illustrative pur- 
poses should be planned for and, if possible, in- 
stalled without fail. Windows should be 
equipped with light-proof shades, easily adjusted 
and non-breakable. The light, heating and 
ventilation may resemble the classroom and 
laboratories. Cupboards, drawers, shelves, etc., 
should be provided for re-agent bottles and for 
smaller apparatus. 

.Library. — A library should be provided for 
teachers and pupils wherever possible. It should 
be primarily a usable room, equipped with book- 
cases, chairs, tables and contain good window 
area. In large buildings the rooms should be 
sufficiently spacious to accommodate an entire 
class at one time. Shelving and cases should be 
provided in other rooms wherever a library is 
impossible. 

Lunch Rooms. — In most schools the lunch 
room may consist of a cheerful room, furnished 
with tables and chairs for pupils who bring their 
noon meal. A drinking fountain and gas plate 
or a small stove on which coffee or tea may be 
re-heated complete the equipment. Where cook- 
ing school classes are maintained some of the 
products may advantageously be served in the 
form of lunches. 

In large high schools it isjrequently desirable 
that the lunch room be a well equipped restaur- 

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School Architecture 

ant with ice boxes, pantries, hooded ranges, 
sinks, a serving counter, tables and chairs. Such 
rooms are best located on the top floor of the 
building or in an isolated corner of the basement 
from which the cookery smells will not spread. 

Lunch rooms should have floors and walls 
which are light in color, non-absorbent and 
easily washed. 

Manual Training-. — The installations of 
manual training departments in elementary and 
high schools have been so varied and so irregu- 
lar that a common understanding of the subject 
is only beginning to take form. Generally 
manual training departments are provided for in 
especially prepared rooms on the ground floor. 
The only requirements are good light, the or- 
dinary warming and ventilation, sound proofing 
of walls and equipment. A high basement will 
correspond to a ground floor and is likewise 
desirable. Upper floors are undesirable on ac- 
count of the noise, frequency of use and the de- 
mand for working materials. 

Provision for manual training will depend en- 
tirely upon the needs of each school system. In 
small elementary schools these will be simple as 
against a technical or manual training high 
school. Ordinarily, elementary schools ought to 
be provided with one manual training room in 
the basement or ground floor. This will suffice, 
if properly equipped for limited study of joining. 

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School Architecture 

turning and general woodworking, In large 
schools or schools especially devoted to the sub- 
ject, a forge room, iron lathe room, moulding 
room, wood turning room, benchwork room, 
tool room, lumber room, teachers' room and an 
unassigned room may be provided. 

In general, manual training departments must 
be equipped with good furniture, including suffi- 
cient benches, a teacher's desk and chair, demon- 
stration table and rack and stools for pupils. 
The teacher ought to be supplied with a closet 
sufficiently large to warrant the storage of com- 
pleted work. A good bookcase, wardrobes for 
the average number of pupils who will use the 
room in one session, a stock room with good 
shelving, and work racks to equal the number 
of benches will complete the equipment. The 
room itself may resemble a classroom in that 
ceilings should be tinted, floors may be made of 
wood, etc. The work shop idea may be readily 
conveyed by glazed brick run to the height of 
blackboards and replacing the ordinary wains- 
coting. 

In large manual training or technical high 
schools lecture rooms like the natural science 
lecture rooms may be added. 

Museum. — Several of the largest high schools 
of the country have lately provided for museums. 
Suitable cases in a properly arranged room must 
be supplied. The specimens are usually gathered 

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School Architecture 

by teacher and pupil and sometimes only tem- 
porarily saved. 

Playrooms. — It is necessary that every 
school be provided with well lighted and amply 
ventilated playrooms, to be used during incle- 
ment weather. Basements with windows on two 
sides are most practical. Asphalt floors, cement 
or burlap wainscoted walls of a light shade and 
round corners wherever possible are desirable. 
Seats should be provided along walls. Heat may 
be supplied from coils suspended below the ceil- 
ing, though the temperature ought never exceed 
60 degrees Fahrenheit. 

Principal's Room. — The principal, the visit- 
ing public and the pupils must all be considered 
in the placing of this room. Practice has it to 
place the principal's room in a three-story build- 
ing on the second floor, immediately adjoining 
a staircase. In a two-story building, the first is 
desirable. The principal's room should be large 
and roomy, complete in equipment, contain a 
lavatory, emergency case, a speaking tube or tele- 
phone to the janitor's room, and always, if possi- 
ble, overlook the entrance. If a building is de- 
signed for both high and graded school purposes, 
the principal's room should be nearest the high 
school department. 

Recitation Rooms. — While the uses of a 
recitation room confined to that work are almost 
identical with the uses of a classroom, a possible 

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School Architecture 

change or variation in their size is very often 
desirable. In high schools where recitation 
classes vary to any extent, several sizes may be 
provided with ease and profit. Blackboard, 
seats, a teacher's desk and table are the chief 
requisites. 

Science Teachers' Room. — Every head 
science teacher in every large high school ought 
to have under his charge an apparatus room for 
storing physical laboratory equipment, a store 
room for bulk chemicals, etc., a balance room 
for the safekeeping of delicate scales and a 
teachers' room for the preparation of lectures 
and private experimentation. The rooms follow 
all the rules for laboratories requiring principal- 
ly dust-proof cases, shelves and drawers of many 
varieties. The rooms ought to assure privacy 
and ought to be provided with several desks and 
tables. 

Storage Rooms. — Attics and basements 
should never be promiscuously lumbered with 
stray pieces of storage. A room with no equip- 
ment, save a little shelving, may be set aside in 
the basement for this purpose. One corner of 
the room may be confined strictly to brooms 
and cleaning materials. 

Teacher's Room. — Where more than six 
teachers are employed in one school building, a 
teacher's room should be provided. This should 
not be a reading room, but merely a rest and 

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School Architecture 

personal retirement apartment. It should be 
equipped with a lavatory, wardrobe, tables and 
chairs. The second floor usually contains the 
teacher's room. 

Waiting" Room. — Every principal's office 
should have adjoining it a proper waiting or 
reception room apart from the private office. 
This will serve not only as a waiting room, but 
if properly arranged, may serve as a teachers' 
meeting room, may be used as the clerk's office in 
larger high schools and may, in smaller communi- 
ties, be used as a board of education room. It will 
give absolute privacy to the principal in his con- 
ferences. It may contain the teachers' pro- 
fessional library and reference books. 

Toilet Rooms. — The greatest care and at- 
tention must be given to the proper installation 
of sanitary toilet systems. The perfection of a 
building depends upon the successful operation 
of this important adjunct to every school. Money 
ought never be spared to assure their ventilation, 
light and absolute sanitation. 

There are three possible places for the loca- 
tion of toilet rooms. The one is on the outside 
of the building, the other in the basement, and 
the third on each floor. When placed on the 
outside, toilets must be properly heated, venti- 
lated, drained and connected by a covered pass- 
age way with the main building. The heating is 
difficult because of the steam pressure needed, 

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School Architecture 

the added exposure and the passage way. The 
plumbing ventilation is difficult because it must 
be led to a point above the roof of the build- 
ings to avoid the possibility of odors. This en- 
tails an added expenditure, which, like the extra 
draining, is expensive. The plan theoretically 
sounds well, but is practically not as good as 
either of the other two systems. 

There is no good reason why the basement 
system in small schools and the so-called stack 
system in large schools are not best. If properly 
heated and ventilated, and operated in connec- 
tion with a good water system, both will prove 
successful. Care must be taken to ventilate both 
systems apart from the regular ventilation system 
of the school because of the danger of back 
draughts, etc. Again the stack system must be 
arranged in towers apart from the rest of the 
building, must be accessible and well ventilated. 
Care should be taken that all toilet rooms are 
well lighted. 

It is needless to say that the best possible 
material ought be used in the fixtures for toilet 
rooms. At all times individual siphon or ped- 
estal closets are best. Urinals may be either 
porcelain or slate, with hammered glass or slate 
uprights. Above all, toilet room fixtures must 
be strong, rapid acting and provided with large 
waste and soil pipes. Urinals ought to be auto- 
matically flushed either during recesses or entire 

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School Architecture 

school days. Closets which operate when the 
weight of the body is removed from the seat are 
good. Two feet three inches, and not more than 
three feet, is the proper width for closet stalls. 
Urinals may obtain a width of one and three- 
quarter feet and a depth of one and one-half feet. 

Great care must be taken in laying the floor 
in toilet rooms. Wood, cement and all absorb- 
ent and corrosive materials must be avoided. 
About the various closets slate should be used 
as much as possible. Cement ought not be used 
because the uric acid coming in contact with 
it begins a chemical action that never can be 
corrected. The most practical substance to use 
for toilet room floors is rock asphalt. This can 
be thoroughly flushed and cleaned with water 
like no other substance. Care must be taken to 
equip toilet rooms with proper catch basin and 
a drain thereto. 

While some variation may be allowed, a good 
rule provides one closet bowl for every fifteen girls, 
and one urinal and closet to every twenty-five 
boys. In kindergarten and primary schools this 
number may be slightly increased. Toilet rooms 
should be equipped with an ample number of wash 
basins or, if possible, a separate wash room lead- 
ing to the corridor. 

While the ventilation of plumbing is properly 
a problem for the sanitary engineer and the 
plumber, great care must be taken to secure its 

135 




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136 



School Architecture 

successful operation. The foul air from toilets 
and urinals must at all times be carried off by a 
separate system of exhaust ducts and never be 
allowed to impregnate any portion of the school 
buildings or be connected with the regular venti- 
lating system. Careful inspection must be made 
by water or smoke test of the absolute air-tight 
condition of every joint and connection and 
then only accepted by an authority competent to 
judge. This is mentioned because sanitary in- 
spection is not always required by law and in- 
ferior workmanship may cause grave damage. 
Ten square inches of duct area for each closet 
and eight square inches for each lineal foot of 
urinal space is accepted as a standard for the 
ventilation of toilet plumbing. 



137 




138 



V 
HEATING AND VENTILATING 

The Problem. — It is an established fact that 
every school building to properly perform the 
function for which it is erected, must be equipped 
with a good system of heating and ventilation. 
Tests of the temperature effects on pupils, the 
vitiation of air in confined use, and the great 
changes and variations in climatic conditions, 
have made the installation of both systems an 
absolute necessity. Heating and ventilation are 
the very heart and vitals of a building, upon 
which depends the success or failure of its en- 
tire construction. 

Briefly, the problem of heating and ventilat- 
ing is this: The air of a schoolroom must be 
mild and agreeable and equally warmed in all 
kinds of weather and in every corner of the 
room. It must be pure and properly moistened. 
Fresh air must enter a room and foul air be re- 
moved in such quantities that no portion of it 
will be breathed into the lungs of the pupils 
twice. On account of the great danger to health 
this is not to be effected by the opening and 

139 




140 



Heating and Ventilation 

closing of windows, but by some automatic 
means which guarantees even better air than 
open windows can supply. The temperature 
must be controlled by some self-working tem- 
perature regulating device which will readily 
maintain a certain, uniform degree of heat. Air 
must be brought into a room without noise, 
draught or annoyance of any kind, and must be 
removed in a similar manner. 

It is almost needless to say, that the temper- 
ing and supply of air is not a problem which 
may be left to the inexperienced or uninformed. 
While most architects know in a general way the 
rules for the heating and ventilation of school 
buildings, only a few are able to give expert 
judgment on its planning and installation. It is 
thus, absolutely necessary, especially where the 
problem is at all large, to employ expert as- 
sistance, not only to ensure an economical in- 
stallation, but also to obtain a system that can 
be used at a minimum of cost during the lifetime 
of the building. 

Again, it is necessary to treat the problem of 
heating and ventilation conjointly. While the 
heating of school buildings, preceded by many 
years their ventilation, the time has come when, 
except in the case of the poor building, one is 
always discussed with or relatively to the other. 
This is especially due, of course, to the fact that 

141 




142 



Heating and Ventilation 

ventilating systems are now operated in con- 
junction with the heating system. The relation 
is evident when it is remembered that the one 
problem deals with the securing of fresh air, the 
other with its warming and tempering. 

Temperature. — The first and most important 
question to be determined in the heating of class- 
rooms is, of course, temperature. It is needless 
to say that overheating means merely fuel waste 
and discomfort, while chilliness means possible 
sickness. 

The temperature to be maintained for class- 
rooms varies in different portions of the country. 
Near the sea coast or in a humid climate 68 de- 
grees Fahrenheit is a good temperature for school 
children. The rules of the English Board of 
Education (Act 1902) requires that "an even 
temperature of from 54 degrees to 60 degrees 
should be maintained." With proper humidity 
and ventilation schools in the United States can 
on an average be kept uniformly at 70 degrees. 

Temperature Regulation. — Every school- 
house equipped with a heating system either of 
steam, hot water or hot air should be supplied 
with automatic temperature regulation. School 
authorities who have given the subject no at- 
tention, frequently confound temperature regu- 
lation with ventilation. The latter deals with the 
supply of fresh air, while the former controls the 
temperature and prevents the rooms in a school 

143 




144 



Heating and Ventilation 

from becoming too hot or too cold. The ad- 
vantages derived in temperature control or regu- 
lation are two fold. 

First, by holding the temperature in a school- 
house at, say 70 degrees, all waste of fuel is pre- 
vented and consequently a considerable saving 
in money is effected. Thousands of dollars have 
been wasted in a single schoolhouse by over- 
heating it and securing a cooler temperature by 
opening the windows. Every particle of excess 
heat which goes out of the window is an actual 
waste of the public funds. If the outdoor tem- 
perature is 30 degrees it will require 40 degrees 
of heat to bring the schoolroom temperature up 
to 70 degrees. If, however, the outdoor tem- 
perature is 50 degrees only 20 degrees of heat 
are required to ensure the comfort of the school- 
room. A reliable system of temperature control 
will furnish the exact amount of heat required 
and avoid all excess consumption of fuel and 
consequently all extravagance in this direction. 

Second, by keeping the classrooms at an even 
temperature the health and comfort of teachers 
and pupils are promoted. A classroom that is 
too cold causes physical discomforts which may 
result in ill health. A classroom that is too hot 
is even worse. The average teacher will resort 
to an open window for relief. The draughts from 
these open windows are certain to bring on 

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Heating and Ventilation 

coughs and colds which only too frequently end 
in throat or pulmonary troubles. The cause of 
education is as much promoted by hygienic sur- 
roundings and physical comfort of pupils as by 
teachers and textbooks. Hence automatic tem- 
perature regulation is regarded by the highest 
authorities as a necessity. A schoolhouse with- 
out it cannot be considered strictly modern. 

The Johnson System is the standard and may 
be found in ninety per cent, of the school and 
college buildings now equipped with any sys- 
tem of temperature control. 

Methods of Heating. — The methods of heat- 
ing school buildings may be divided under two 
headings: individual, in which the heat is 
radiant; and central, in which the air is heated 
by convection. Generally speaking, the first 
method, in which a stove is to be employed, is 
impractical in all but the one room school. The 
ventilation, such as it is, is limited and by no 
means equal to the poorest gravity system. A 
central heating system may consist of a furnace, 
steam, or hot water boilers, which in turn may 
be either direct or indirect. The open grate or 
English fire place, while offering possibly the 
best ventilation for small schools is very rarely 
used in this country, and therefore, need not be 
considered. It is an extremely poor heater, is 
dangerous, and does not compare in service with 
the jacketed stove. 

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Heating and Ventilation 

Stove Heating. — In the small country 
schools heating by stoves is most practical. 
Where a stove is employed it is best surrounded 
by a sheet iron jacket extending from the floor 
to about six inches above the stove top. A fresh 
air inlet is provided in the floor under the stove, 
and connected by means of a metal duct with the 
outside. The chimney is arranged to contain a 
vent flue with a register near the floor line to 
carry off the cold and vitiated air. Valves are 
placed in fresh air and vent ducts to be closed at 
night. The system is troublesome, dirty, dis- 
turbing, though very economical. 90 per cent, 
of the heat generated is used. 

Furnace. — There are two ways of employing 
furnace heating, namely, through the gravity and 
the fan system. In very small buildings only, or 
where certain conditions do not permit, is it ad- 
visable to use the gravity system. The fan sys- 
tem is always preferable, but where a lack of 
funds does not permit, or where ready power for 
operating fans is not obtainable, the gravity sys- 
tem must necessarily be resorted to. Such grav- 
ity system must depend for its successful opera- 
tion upon the planning of the ducts and the di- 
rection of the winds. With the gravity system 
there are times when strong winds from certain 
directions may prevent certain rooms from being 
heated. With the fan system the air may be 

149 







150 



Heating and Ventilation 

forced into all rooms even against outside wind 
pressures. 

The furnace fan system, employed in the large r 
buildings, usually proves successful. The effi- 
ciency here, like in all heating plants, however, 
rests mainly upon the proper planning and in- 
stallation of the system by a reliable contractor 
and one who is familiar with this class of school 
work. It is very essential in this class of heating 
systems that all joints in the furnaces shall be 
made air tight and thus dust and gas proof. 

Steam Heating. — The popularity of steam 
for the heating of school buildings is due to a 
variety of causes. Primarily, it is cheap to install 
and eminently serviceable. On account of the 
intensity of steam heat much piping or radiating 
surface is not necessary. Single piping through- 
out is only necessary, with one series of returns 
in the basement. Unused portions of the sys- 
tem can be shut off without danger of frost and 
at a saving of heat. In extremely cold weather 
steam rarely fails to respond when other sys- 
tems cannot be made to work. Steam heat de- 
livers from seventy to eighty per cent, of the 
heat of the fuel to the radiating surface. 

Despite these advantages, however, the argu- 
ment of ''burnt air" during intense cold has been 
used against the system of steam heating. Steam 
enters the piping at a high temperature and con- 
veying this heat to the surface seems to burn the 

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Heating and Ventilation 

particles of dust which come into contact with this 
piping. In a low-pressure system with indirect 
radiation this difficulty is not met with and steam 
will prove most satisfactory. German authorities 
prefer a low-pressure, indirect steam system. 
Vacuum steam heating systems produce in an 
absolute vacuum of 29.92 inches water a vapor 
at 98 degrees; in a 20-inch vacuum at 161.2 de- 
grees. They have been used with success in 
small school buildings. 

Hot Water Heating. — The advantages 
argued in favor of hot water heating are especial- 
ly economy of fuel and satisfaction in the de- 
grees of heating. Tests have absolutely proven 
that while the first cost of installation consider- 
ably exceeds that of the cost of direct steam heat- 
ing the amount of fuel saved by hot water system 
warrants the increased expenditure. Hot water 
is easily operated, and when employed in an in- 
direct low-pressure system is excellent. Care, 
however, should be taken that in the indirect hot 
water system a cold air shut-off damper be placed 
in cold air duct to each indirect stack. The heat 
units utilized out of the fuel are 65 to 75 per cent. 

Direct and Indirect Heating. — With the 
more recent perfection of ventilating systems, sim- 
ple direct heating or the placing of steam or hot 
water radiators in classrooms has become unpop- 
ular. The great objection is found that with di- 

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Heating and Ventilation 

rect radiation only in schoolrooms, children re- 
breathe the same air time and again, until it be- 
comes so vitiated as to be absolutely stifling. Di- 
rect heating is permissible in corridors, gymna- 
siums, ward-robes and basements, but care should 
always be taken as to the proper placing of radi- 
ators, etc. 

Indirect heating done through the gravity sys- 
tem, is liable to be more or less successful. 
Directions of winds and other weather condi- 
tions having a large bearing on the success of 
system. The plenum system of ventilation, how- 
ever, with fan, has proven exceptionally successful. 
Though more expensive, it lends itself to the 
ready heating of the fresh air and its rapid intro- 
duction into classrooms by forcing air through 
encased heat coils in warming chambers and the 
consequent transmission of warmed air into 
rooms. 

The direct with mechanical ventilation system 
of heating schools has become very popular in 
recent years. With this arrangement radiators or 
wall coils are placed in front of windows and on 
exposed sides of schoolrooms, to which the steam 
generated at boilers is furnished. In cold weather 
the greater part of the heating of the rooms is 
then done through this direct radiation. With the 
mechanical ventilation is connected a fan which 
blows air through a series of coils located in a 
plenum chamber. This plenum chamber has 

155 




156 



Heating and Ventilation 

ducts connected to it, one going to each room and 
through these ducts a constant supply of proper 
tempered air is sent to the rooms. As will be 
seen, the pupils are therefore getting a constant 
supply of fresh warm air to breathe, and in which 
this arrangement considerably differs from and 
improves over the simple direct system of heating. 
There is a considerable benefit in economy also to 
be considered in the arrangement of this heating 
system, viz. : that in the milder weather the direct 
apparatus, if automatically controlled, is kept shut 
off the greater part of the time and the heating 
as well as the ventilation is then done through 
the fan heating system. If not automatically 
controlled, these conditions would altogether de- 
pend upon the ability or the willingness of the 
teachers to give their attention to the heating 
plant. 

Air. — The strongest argument that can pos- 
sibly be advanced for the proper ventilation of 
school buildings is found in the remarkable 
change which fresh air undergoes in respiration. 
Air is approximately composed of four parts of 
nitrogen to one part of oxygen, carbonic acid 
gas from two to five parts in 10,000 volumes, 
some water vapor and a very little ammonia. 
Vitiated or expired air contains only about 95 
per cent, of the required oxygen, an excess of 
.15 parts of nitrogen, an increase in the total 

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Heating and Ventilation 

mixture of almost five per cent, of carbonic acid 
.gas, besides the heat and moisture created by ex- 
halation. 

It is thus evident that the greatest danger of 
poorly ventilated rooms is the lack of oxygen 
and the excess of carbonic acid gas. Oxygen 
which is found in such great quantities in the air 
is replaced by a gas, which, though not directly 
poisonous, is not necessary to life to the same 
degree as oxygen. Carbonic acid gas contami- 
nates the air by mixing perfectly with it thus 
reducing the volume of oxygen which can and 
must be breathed in given quantities. Further- 
more, when it is remembered that mixing per- 
fectly with the air carbonic acid gas begins to be 
detected by the sense of smell when seven parts 
in 10,000 have been reached the absolute neces- 
sity of good ventilation is apparent. 

In any consideration of air and its effects up- 
on the inhabitants of schoolhouses the work of 
pupils and teachers must always be considered. 
It is an established fact that work in vitiated air 
is almost impossible. The senses seem to be 
numbed; fatigue and lassitude are experienced to 
a very marked degree with the consequent 
effect upon the blood and vital organs of the oc- 
cupant. Tests of pupils under all conditions 
have established the absolute necessity of ven- 
tilation and temperature regulation. Tests have 

159 




160 



Heating and Ventilation 

been made and records of same can be obtained 
from publisher of this volume. 

Requirements for Ventilation. — In plan- 
ning any school building it must not be forgot- 
ten that 250 cubic feet of air space must be pro- 
vided for every pupil, in every classroom. Into 
this space 30 cubic feet of fresh air per pupil must 
be supplied once each minute, or a complete 
change of air must be made once every eight to 
ten minutes. The actual amount of fresh air re- 
quired for every pupil is variously computed by 
authorities from 1,800 to 2,500 cubic feet per 
hour. Less than 1,800 cubic feet of air per hour 
for each occupant of a room would undoubtedly 
prove unhealthful. More than 2,200 cubic feet 
may be considered excessive, if not wasteful. The 
total number of air changes for each classroom 
can readily be computed by obtaining the cubic 
contents of the room. Thirty cubic feet per 
minute, per pupil, multiplied by the number of 
pupils to occupy a room will give the amount 
of air required for a room each minute. By 
dividing the cubic contents of a room by the air 
required for that room once a minute the num- 
ber of changes can be computed for every hour. 

Methods of Ventilation. — There are two 
general methods of ventilating school buildings 
of ordinary size. The one method is the gravity 
system, commonly called natural ventilation. 

161 




162 



Heating and Ventilation 

The other is the system of mechanical ventilation 
operated either on the plenum or vacuum prin- 
ciple. 

Window ventilation and stove ventilation are 
not considered here. Window ventilation should 
never be resorted to where other methods are 
possible. It may never be considered a 
system as such because of the danger of draughts 
and the necessity of open doors. Stove ventila- 
tion is merely an apology for making stoves 
usable in the economical conduct of the small 
school. They have been described under stove 
heating because the jacket, the inlet and outlet 
flue and the dampers ought to be made a part of 
the stove itself. 

Natural Ventilation. — -Natural ventilation 
is always effected on the principle of gravity, 
wherefor the system is commonly called the 
gravity system. In this system the ventilation is 
caused by the lightness of the heated air which 
naturally rises and then is properly carried from 
the room by ducts and flues. Heat may be 
secured either direct or indirect through inlet 
flues connected with the furnace or from an air 
chamber equipped with coil piping. The outlet 
flue, placed in the lower part of the room, is 
frequently equipped with a separate system of 
heated piping to create a suction and thus, assist 
in drawing the vitiated air out above the roof. 

163 




164 



Heating and Ventilation 

Many drawbacks accompany a system of 
natural or gravity ventilation. Primarily it is 
unreliable. It works well during cold weather 
when there is a radical variation between the in- 
door and outdoor temperature. When the 
weather is mild proper suction cannot be created 
and the system loses force and working effi- 
ciency. High winds effect the system, while 
much coal is needed to assure thirty cubic feet 
of fresh air per minute per pupil. The system is 
inferior to the pressure or mechanical system. 

Mechanical Ventilation. — Mechanical ven- 
tilation means the forcing of air into the room 
by means of fans or blowers. Fans or blowers 
of a certain size, operating at a certain number 
of revolutions will propel an amount of air into 
a room which can be mathematically computed. 
The great advantage is that irrespective of wind, 
weather or temperature, the air can be supplied 
regularly, evenly, and at the proper degree of 
warmth. 

Two systems of mechanical ventilation were 
originally devised. The one was known as a 
vacuum or exhaust system by which a fan placed 
in the attic drew vitiated air from the various 
rooms and corridors of the entire building. The 
other is known as the plenum or pressure sys- 
tem, by which the fresh air is driven through 
ducts and flues wherever ventilation is required. 

165 




166 



Heating and Ventilation 

Both systems have been tried until today the 
plenum system meets with general favor. 

The vacuum system of ventilation was built 
on the idea of suction. Vitiated air was to be 
drawn out while fresh air was supplied from in- 
lets, etc. It soon became noticeable, however, 
that the fan would not confine its efforts to foul 
air, but allowed an open or defective window or 
door to become its entire source of supply. In 
like manner odors from toilet rooms would be 
started up through a building with serious 
effects. The system has therefore almost entirely 
given way to the plenum or pressure system. 

The plenum or fan blast system has in recent 
years gained great popularity. Heating in this 
arrangement is done by banking a large amount 
of radiation in a basement room close to a fan or 
blower. Fresh air is taken from out of doors 
'through this radiation (called tempering coils) by 
the fan, and is forced into a plenum chamber from 
which various ducts lead up into the different 
rooms. Between the fan and the plenum chamber 
a second set of coils (called re-heater coils), and 
a by-pass are placed. A mixing damper is in- 
serted, so that the air can be sent into any room 
at a desired degree of temperature. In this sys- 
tem of heating, the ducts are generally placed on 
inside walls, having the opening toward the out- 

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Heating and Ventilation 

side walls or windows. In connection with the 
heating ducts must be placed a ventilating duct 
which carries off the heated and vitiated air. As 
already explained in other arrangements of heat- 
ing systems care must be given in order to get the 
heating and ventilating ducts the proper sizes ac- 
cording to the dimensions of the rooms and the 
number of scholars in such rooms. 

With this system of heating, doors leading to 
corridors should always be kept closed, and win- 
dows should be well fitted. In fact, to make the 
most successful working plant of this arrange- 
ment, the more air-tight a room can be made 
aside from the outlet or heat duct, and the inlet 
or vent duct, the better. 

The plenum system supplies air more uniform- 
ly, more economically, more efficiently, with less 
velocity and greater convenience than any other 
system. Temperature can readily be maintained 
and regulated, while warm air can be introduced 
without annoyance or inconvenience to teacher 
or pupil. The inlets and outlets must be care- 
fully placed and air however propelled must be 
pure and tempered. Fans may be run by a low 
pressure of steam from the boilers, and the ex- 
hausts from the general engine run into the 
pipes. Thus, the cost of running the fan be- 
comes almost a negative item. Or the system 

169 




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Heating and Ventilation 

may be arranged that the building can be warmed 
in mild weather by the exhaust steam from the 
engine that propels the fan on a steam pressure 
of from five to fifteen pounds, thus likewise 
effecting a material reduction in the consumption 
of coal. Fans may also be run by electricity, 
water motors or gas engines. A combination of 
the plenum and vacuum systems has been at- 
tempted recently and operated with great success. 
An excellent idea has been worked out in a 
Western city by the schoolhouse architect, who 
has separated the ventilating system for the 
auditorium from the regular ventilating system. 
This was based on the fact that the auditorium is 
used only a short time each day and that a 
separate motor supplying independent ventilation 
will save its own cost in but a short time. The 
plan has been worked successfully and 
economically, and contains the elements of prac- 
ticability. 

Inlets and Outlets.— The best system of 
ventilation can be absolutely destroyed by the 
incorrect sizes of inlets and outlets or their care- 
less location anywhere in a wall. Inlets and out- 
lets regulate the volume of air supplied per 
minute, the velocity at which the system can 
possibly be made to supply thirty cubic feet per 
minute per pupil, in fact the ventilating effi- 
ciency of the entire system. A proper apprecia- 

171 




173 



Heating and Ventilation 

tion and understanding of the subject means a 
solution of the entire ventilating problem. 

After much discussion and experimenting the 
consensus of opinion is making toward an inlet 
register placed above the breathing line at about 
eight or nine feet above the floor and an outlet 
in the same wall a few inches above the floor. 
In this manner it is known draughts are avoided, 
air is sent into the room a maximum distance 
and returned after its use to the outlet. While in 
the old systems the outlet ducts were always 
placed near the ceiling because of the action of 
heated foul air, the indirect plenum system sup- 
plies air on the prinicple that foul air which is 
heavy, drops to the floor and ought to be drawn 
away before it is allowed to rise to the ceiling. 
Tests with smoke have absolutely proven that 
of all methods the inlets above and outlets be- 
low in the same wall are best. 

Inlets ought to be large in proportion to the 
amount of heated or fresh warm air to be sup- 
plied. They ought at least guarantee a constant 
supply of air without draughts or annoyance. 
For this reason air ought never be allowed to 
enter a classroom at a greater velocity than six 
feet per second. Were it not for the cost air 
might best be forced into the room at several 
points and vitiated air removed at several other 
points in different walls. 

173 







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Healing and Ventilation 

The minimum size for inlets and outlets in 
standard classrooms can safely be placed at four 
square feet, or one square foot for every ten oc- 
cupants. When it is remembered that the smaller 
the inlet the stronger the draught and vice versa, 
an inlet of six square feet is not too large. The 
London Board of Education provides that inlets 
should assure a minimum area of 2 l / 2 square in- 
ches per head. An English authority discussing 
the subject allows that this appears to be hardly 
sufficient unless some means of mechanical pro- 
pulsion is used. He goes on to say, that "it is 
usually calculated that a square inch of unob- 
structed space will allow 125 cubic feet of air to 
pass through per hour, so that for every thou- 
sand feet of air required four square inches of 
clear opening must be provided." If anything, 
outlets must be larger than inlets. 

In the construction of flues great care must 
be taken to avoid dead ends, cold exposure and 
bold curves. Each will tend to disturb the 
working efficiency of the system. Curves will 
reduce the carrying power of the air by almost 
one-quarter, unless properly sloped. It is sug- 
gested by the Massachusetts building inspector 
that an outlet flue should be equipped with a 
steam pipe about one foot above the opening of 
the flue. 

The proper dimensions of all flues may be 
determined by dividing the volume of air to be 

175 




176 



Heating and Ventilation 

handled by permissable rate of flow. Their shape 
is best rectangular, since the loss of air due to 
friction by passing through pipes varies as the 
square of its velocity. This does not mean they 
should not be made large, but is a precaution 
against waste in fan or gravity power. Vertical 
flues are usually designed for an air velocity of 
six to eight hundred feet per minute, with a 
greater velocity in the horizontal supply flues. 
A flue 2 l / 2 feet square, 12 feet long with 30 per 
cent, difference in temperature, will discharge 
250 cubic feet of air per minute. 

Fresh Air Supply. — Great care must be 
taken to secure for every school building the 
best possible air. For this reason air must al- 
ways come directly from the outside through a 
supply which ought never begin at the ground. 
The fresh air supply pipe ought to be run up 
the side of the building about twelve feet. While 
in three story buildings this may be more; it 
must not be forgotten that smoke from adjoining 
buildings may contaminate the air if the supply 
pipe reaches too great a heighth. The pipe is 
best placed on the south side of a building both 
on account of the warmth of the exposure, as 
also the disinfecting qualities of the sunlight. It 
should be covered with a wire netting, loose 
wove, and should be proportioned to the work 
required. 

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Heating and Ventilation 

In almost every system the fresh air intro- 
duced into a building must be cleaned and tem- 
pered before transmission to classrooms. Either 
of the systems of air washing can be used effec- 
tively and will determine to an extent the suc- 
cess or failure of fresh air supply. Where tem- 
pering rooms and a plenum system are installed 
the problem of air cleaning and tempering is 
reduced to merely the correct size and location 
of the cleaners and the tempering room. These 
latter, whether rooms or chambers, should be air 
tight, and sufficiently large to raise the air to the 
temperature required. They should be white- 
washed several times a year, cleaned continually, 
and be kept perfectly empty at all times. 

Air-Washer. — There are a number of school 
buildings throughout the United States that have 
installed so-called air-washers. They are de- 
signed to cleanse the air from dust and soot be- 
fore passing into the schoolrooms. The device 
consists of a series of baffle plates so arranged, 
in the inlet duct in the basement, as to arrest 
every dust particle and then pass the air through 
several sprays of water, thus thoroughly washing 
it before passing into the classroom. Another 
method consists of the use of a horizontal crate 
filled with moistened coke or excelsior through 
which the air passes before, going into the upper 
ducts. A third and simpler method comprises a 

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Heating and Ventilation 

series of sprays emanating from perforated water 
pipes. These pipes are so arranged that the 
sprays practically form a thin sheet of water, 
thoroughly washing the air as it passes through. 

Other very cheap and simple air filters may 
be made of screens covered with hempen cords, 
jute cloth or cheese cloth. Each of the three 
materials has been used successfully. To make 
the screen rigid they may be covered with coarse 
filter netting. Screen niters must be made mov- 
able and cleanable and should be covered with 
a good quality of material whichever is used. 
Care must be taken not to make the passage of 
air through screens too difficult since the size of 
flues must be increased when air-washers are be- 
ing planned. There is no doubt but what air 
thus washed or screened becomes pure and 
fresh. When the water method is used it may 
become a combination air-washer and humidi- 
fier. The water air-washer may be used as a 
temperature cooler in the early fall and late 
spring of the school year. 

Humidity. — If, as has been proven, the aver- 
age percentage of moisture in outdoor atmos- 
phere is 70 per cent, it would seem only reason- 
able that a reduction to 20 or 30 per cent, in 
classrooms would not be wise. The average at- 
mosphere in schoolrooms and private dwellings 
contains, especially during the winter months, 

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Heating and Ventilation 

10 to 20 per cent, of air moisture. This is ex- 
plained in the fact that without the injection of 
moisture the humidity of the air is reduced by 
one-half for a given volume with every 19 de- 
grees Fahrenheit increase of heat. One hundred 
per cent, is taken as the maximum of saturation 
after which condensation begins. 

Without discussing the effects of dry atmos- 
phere attention may be drawn to the causes of 
throat and nasal trouble, the improper self-care 
of mouth, throat and nose in dry atmosphere 
and the ultimate mumifying effects upon the text- 
ure of the skin. Another remarkable effect of 
dry air is that while it may require a temperature 
of 70 degrees to ensure physical comfort, the 
same may be obtained with a relative humidity 
of 50 per cent, at 65 degrees Fahrenheit. In 
other words, if the moisture which properly be- 
longs in air is adequate 5 degrees less heat is 
necessary to properly temper a room. It has 
been estimated, roughly, that this will make a 
fuel saving from 12^ to 15 per cent. 

Fifty per cent, is about the proper humidity 
to be maintained in classrooms. It may vary 
from 40 to 60 per cent, under conditions, though 
both points ought to be taken as extreme limits 
to be avoided. Besides the systems of air-wash- 
ing, which may serve to an extent as humidi- 
fiers, moisture may be injected into air from 

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Heating and Ventilation 

radiator pans, wet cloths or sponges hung in sup- 
ply ducts or water vessels placed in furnaces. 
The best system seems to be that connected with 
an indirect heating plant by which a small jet of 
steam is allowed to escape into a funnel shaped 
tube near the opening of the cold air duct The 
tube is equipped with a valve which expands as 
the steam escapes, thus regulating the amount 
of moisture 'supplied. The system has proven 
must successful and has been used with good re- 
sults. 

Boiler Rooms. — Unquestionably the boiler 
room in a small school building belongs in the 
basement of that building. The comparative 
safety with which this can be installed, as also 
the excessive expense incurred by any other 
location, establishes the rule for the basement 
boiler room in small schools. 

In later years, however, outside boiler rooms 
have been constructed in connection with large 
buildings and are now being operated with great 
success. Of course, the plan is expensive in its 
first equipment. Its operation is the same as the 
basement boiler room with the advantages of 
isolation, and a reduction of the danger of fire, 
explosions, etc. Again heating and ventilating 
systems can be constructed on more liberal lines 
without the danger of encroaching upon the 
basement and its other uses. 

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Heating and Ventilation 

In general, the boiler room follows the rule 
laid down for basements. It should be at least 
twelve feet high and if possible shut off from the 
rest of the basement by a heavy fire-proof wall. 
The only means of communication with the rest 
of the building ought to be by a fire-proof door, 
fitted with spring butts and door checks. Though 
brick pavement or stone flagging laid in con- 
crete has been commonly used for floors in boiler 
rooms, asphalt, laid at least one-half inch thick 
or good concrete will serve as excellent flooring. 
Ceilings should be fire-proof cement on metal 
lathing. 

The best type of boiler ought always be 
selected for new school buildings. They should 
be properly inspected by qualified engineers and 
only accepted after satisfactory test. Boilers 
should be made accessible on all sides with prac- 
tical communication with coal room and out- 
side. Flues should have not less than four in- 
ches of brickwork and be lined from bottom to 
top with terra cotta or cast iron flue linings. 
Eight inches at all joints should be the thick- 
ness for the enclosing brickwork of all boiler 
and furnace flues, while wood should never be 
used except within a safe distance of their ex- 
terior. In like manner all piping should be kept 
free to obviate all danger of fire. 

Chimneys. — The height of a chimney and 
the size of the flue should receive the maximum 

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Heating and Ventilation 

allowance in accordance with the size of the 
heating apparatus. The heating engineer can 
determine this readily. Care should be taken to 
make chimneys as inconspicuous as possible 
without affecting the efficiency of the heating 
system. 

Heat Economy. — Where buildings are me- 
chanically ventilated the exit duct or ducts 
should be provided with a damper or dampers 
which should be closed when the ventilation is 
not required, for instance, before and after school 
hours. The heat can thus be confined to the 
building after the fires have been banked. If 
compressed air is used in building, a pipe line sys- 
tem having a switchboard in engine room can be 
led to such attic dampers and they can thus be 
automatically opened or closed. If no compressed 
air system is used in the building these dampers 
can be operated by a series of chains or ropes 
operated from some central or convenient place. 

With the mechanical plenum system of ven- 
tilation a plan has been devised for rapidly heat- 
ing a building before the opening of school. In 
these systems a by-pass is arranged at the fresh 
air inlet whereby air is drawn from corridors 
and rooms and returned perfectly warm to the 
various portions of the building. As soon as 
the proper temperature has been reached the 
fresh air supply is thrown in and fresh air is 

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Heating and Ventilation 

supplied. Undoubtedly a building can thus be 
warmed in a short time at very little expense. 

Radiators. — Radiators ought always take 
precedence over steam coils, except in base- 
ments. They are pleasing to the eye, allow ample 
radiation surface, and can be placed wherever 
desired. In general they should be simple in 
design, contain no dust catching nooks or cor- 
ners, and be fitted with automatic air valves. 

Foot Warmers. — Foot warmers are desir- 
able in elementary schools, installed in lower 
corridors. They may consist of simple steam 
pipes encased in tin or galvanized iron boxes. 
Air supply may be taken from the risers in the 
vestibule stairs. It is well to have a water drip 
and a drip pipe connected with the casing to 
prevent drainage through leakage that may oc- 
cur and to carry off water from the wet shoes 
of children. Foot warmers should have means 
for closing when not in use, and a cleanout. 



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APPENDIX "A" 

Laws for Schoolhouse Construction 

The general building and inspection laws 
have heretofore governed the erection of school- 
houses. These have referred principally to fire 
safety and require usually the swinging of 
exit doors outward. During the past few years, 
however, school authorities have prevailed on 
legislatures to enact laws more closely govern- 
ing the construction of school buildings. Fol- 
lowing are a few of the best laws now on the 
statute books of the several states: 

The New York Law 

1. No schoolhouse shall hereafter be erected 
in any city of the third class or in any incor- 
porated village or school district, and no addi- 
tion to a school building in any such place shall 
hereafter be erected, the cost of which shall ex- 
ceed five hundred dollars, until the plans and 
specifications for the same shall have been sub- 
mitted to the commissioner of education and his 
approval indorsed thereon. Such plans and 
specifications shall show in detail the ventilation, 
heating and lighting of such buildings. 

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Schoolhouse Laws 

2. Such commissioner of education shall not 
approve any plans for the erection of any school 
building or addition thereto unless the same shall 
provide at least fifteen square feet of floor space 
and two hundred cubic feet of air space for each 
pupil to be accommodated in each study or 
recitation room therein, and no such plans shall 
be approved by him unless provision is made 
therein, for assuring at least thirty cubic feet of 
pure air every minute per pupil, and the facili- 
ties for exhausting the foul or vitiated air there- 
in shall be positive and independent of atmos- 
pheric changes. 

3. No tax voted by a district meeting or 
other competent authority in any such city, vill- 
age or school district exceeding the sum of five 
hundred dollars, shall be levied by the trustees 
until the commissioner of education shall certify 
that the plans and specifications for the same 
comply with the provisions of this section. 

4. All schoolhouses for which plans and de- 
tailed statements shall be filed and approved, as 
required by this section, shall have all halls, 
doors, stairways, seats, passageways and aisles 
and all lighting and heating appliances and ap- 
paratus arranged to facilitate egress in cases of 
fire or accident and to afford the requisite and 
proper accommodations for public protection in 



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Schoolhouse Laws 

such cases. All exit doors shall open outwardly, 
and shall, if double doors be used, be fastened 
with movable bolts operated simultaneously by 
one handle from the inner face of the door. No 
staircase shall be constructed with wider steps 
in lieu of a platform, but shall be constructed 
with straight runs, changes in direction being 
made by platforms. No door shall run im- 
mediately upon a flight of stairs, but a landing at 
least the width of the door shall be provided 
between such stairs and such doorway. — (Laws 
1909, Chapter 21, Article 5, Paragraph 111.) 

The Pennsylvania Law 
That in order that due care may be exercised 
in the heating, lighting and ventilating of pub!ic 
school buildings hereafter erected, no school- 
house shall be erected by any board of education 
or school district in this State, the cost of which 
shall exceed four thousand dollars ($4,000.00), 
until the plans and specifications for the same 
shall show in detail the proper heating, lighting 
and ventilating of such building. 

Light shall be admitted from the left or from 
the left and rear of classrooms, and the total 
light area must, unless strengthened by the use 
of reflecting lenses, equal at least twenty-five per 
centum of floor space. 

Schoolhouses shall have in each classroom at 
least fifteen square feet of floor space, and not 

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Schoolhouse Laws 

less than two hundred cubic feet of air space per 
pupil, and shall provide for an approved system 
of indirect heating and ventilation, by means of 
which each classroom shall be supplied with 
fresh air at the rate of not less than thirty cubic 
feet per minute for each pupil, and warmed to 
maintain an average temperature of seventy de- 
grees Fahrenheit during the coldest weather. — 
(Act April 22, 1905, Sec. 1-3, P. L. p. 282.) 

The New Jersey Law 
In order that the health, sight and comfort 
of the pupils may be properly protected, all 
schoolhouses hereafter erected shall comply with 
the following conditions: 

I. Light shall be admitted from the left, or 
from the left and rear of classrooms, and the 
total light area must, unless strengthened by the 
use of reflecting lenses, equal at least twenty per 
centum of floor space. 

II. Schoolhouses shall have in each class- 
room at least eighteen square feet of floor space, 
and not less than two hundred cubic feet of air 
space per pupil. All school buildings shall have 
an approved system of ventilation by means of 
which each classroom shall be supplied with 
fresh air at the rate of not less than thirty cubic 
feet per minute for each pupil. 

III. All ceilings shall be at least twelve feet 
in height. 

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Schoolhouse Laws 

IV. All stairs, except cellar stairs, shall be 
not less than four feet in width and shall have 
intermediate landings. The several flights of 
stairs shall be enclosed by brick walls or by 
partitions of slow burning construction, and 
without open well holes. The risers of stairs 
shall not exceed seven and one-half inches in 
height, and the treads shall be at least ten in- 
ches in width, exclusive of the projecting nos- 
ings. 

V. Every schoolhouse having eight rooms 
shall have two flights of stairs of not less than 
four feet in width, or, in lieu thereof, one flight 
of stairs situated near the center of the building, 
not less than six feet in width. 

VI. Every school building having more than 
eight and less than sixteen rooms, shall have two 
flights of stairs not less than five feet in width. 

VII. Every schoolhouse having sixteen or 
more rooms shall have three flights of stairs not 
less than four feet in width, or, in lieu thereof, 
two complete flights of stairs not less than six 
feet in width. 

VIII. Every building more than one story 
in height shall have metal ceilings, wooden ceil- 
ings painted white, or some light tint, or 
plastered ceilings on metal lath. — (Laws 1903, 
Rev., Art. X, Sec. 131.) 

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Schoolhousc Laws 

The Utah Law 

Provided, that no schoolhouse shall hereafter 
be erected in any school district of this state not 
included in cities of the first and second class, 
and no addition to a school building in any such 
place shall hereafter be erected until the plans 
and specifications for the same shall have been 
submitted to a commission consisting of the 
State Superintendent of Public Instruction, the 
Secretary of the State Board of Health, and an 
architect to be appointed by the Governor, and 
their approval endorsed thereon. Such plans 
and specifications shall show in detail the ven- 
tilation, heating and lighting of such buildings. 
The commission herein provided shall not ap- 
prove any plans for the erection of any school 
building or addition thereto unless the same 
shall provide at least fifteen square feet of floor 
space and two hundred cubic feet of air space 
for each pupil to be accommodated in each study 
or recitation room therein, and no such plans 
shall be approved by them unless provision is 
made therein for assuring at least thirty cubic 
feet of pure air every minute for each pupil and 
the facilities for exhausting the foul or vitiated 
air therein shall be positive and independent of 
atmospheric changes. No tax voted by a dis- 
trict meeting or other competent authority in 
any such school district shall be levied by the 

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Schoolhouse Laws 

trustees until the commission shall certify that 
the plans and specifications for the same comply 
with the provisions of this Act. All school- 
houses for which plans and detailed statements 
shall be filed and approved, as required by this 
Act, shall have all halls, doors, stairways, seats, 
passageways, and aisles, all lighting and heating 
appliances and apparatus arranged to facilitate 
egress in cases of fire or accident, and to afford 
the requisite and proper accommodations for 
public protection in such cases. 

The commission herein provided shall serve 
without compensation, but shall receive their 
actual and necessary expenses incurred in the 
performance of their official duties, except the 
architect, who shall receive as above provided 
and four dollars per day while attending meet- 
ings of the commission, the account for which 
shall be verified on oath and be paid from the 
State School Fund.— (Law 1907, Sec. 1823, 
Amended 1909.) 

The South Dakota law 

In order that due care may be exercised in 
the heating, lighting and ventilation of public 
school buildings hereafter erected, no school- 
house shall be erected by any board of education 
or school district board in this state until the 
plans and specifications for the same showing in 
detail the proper heating, lighting and ventila- 

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Schoolhousc Laws 

tion of such building shall have been approved 
by the superintendent of public instruction. 

Schoolhouses shall have in each classroom at 
least fifteen square feet of floor space, and not 
less than two hundred cubic feet of air space per 
pupil, and shall provide for an approved system 
of heating and ventilation by means of which 
each classroom shall be supplied with fresh air 
at the rate of not less than thirty cubic feet per 
minute for each pupil, and have a system of 
heating capable of maintaining an average tem- 
perature of seventy degrees Fahrenheit during 
the coldest weather. — (Laws 1907, Art. XV., Sec. 
237.) 

The Kansas Law- 
Sec. 1. That the doors of all public or pri- 
vate schoolhouses shall open outwards, and all 
doors of schoolhouses shall remain unlocked 
while the school is in session. 

Sec. 2. That in every public or private 
schoolhouse of two or more stories, every story 
above the first shall be provided with either two 
or more exits from the upper floor separate and 
distinct from the exits of the lower floor, or 
shall be provided with sufficient and suitable fire 
escapes which shall be built of iron or steel. 

Sec. 3. That the tops of all furnaces in pub- 
lic or private schoolhouses shall be covered with 
asbestos covering, and the top of such furnace 

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Schoolhousc Lazvs 

shall not be nearer than eighteen inches to the 
nearest woodwork above. The ceiling above 
said furnace shall be covered with asbestos or 
masonry. 

Sec. 4. That no contract shall be let for the 
erection of any school building, nor shall any 
public funds be paid out for the erection of 
schoolhouses of two or more stories until the 
plans for such buildings shall have been sub- 
mitted to the state architect and approved as to 
all the requirements of this act. — (Laws 1909, 
Chapter 209.) 

The Virginia Law 

Construction of schoolhouses. No school- 
house shall be contracted for or erected until 
the site, location, plans and specifications there- 
for shall have been submitted to and approved 
in writing by the division superintendent of 
schools, whose action in each case shall be re- 
ported by him to the State Board of Education; 
and no public school shall be allowed in any 
building which is not in such condition and pro- 
vided with such conveniences as are required by 
a due regard to decency and health; and when a 
schoolhouse appears to the division superintend- 
ent of schools to be unfit for occupancy, it shall 
be his duty to condemn the same and immediate- 
ly to give notice thereof in writing to the chair- 
man of the district school board, and thenceforth 

209 







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210 



ScJioolhouse Lazus 

no public school shall be held therein, nor shall 
any part of the state or county fund be applied 
to support any school in such house until the 
division superintendent shall certify, in writing, 
to the district school board that he is satisfied 
with the condition of such building and with the 
appliances pertaining thereto. — (Code, Sec. 1489, 
Par. 56.) 

The Massachusetts Law 

1. That the apparatus will, with proper man- 
agement, heat all rooms, including the corridors 
to 70 degrees F. in any weather. 

2. That, with the rooms at 70 degrees and a 
difference of not less than 40 degrees between 
the temperature of the outside air and that of 
the air entering the room at the warm air inlet, 
the apparatus will supply at least thirty cubic 
feet of air per minute for each scholar accom- 
modated in the room. 

3. That such supply of air will so circulate 
in the rooms that no uncomfortable draught will 
be felt, and that the difference in temperature be- 
tween any two points on the breathing plane in 
the occupied portion of the room will not ex- 
ceed 3 degrees. 

4. That vitiated air in amount equal to the 
supply from the inlets will be removed through 
the vent ducts. 



211 




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Schoolhouse Laws 

5. That the sanitary appliances will be so 
ventilated that no odors therefrom will be per- 
ceived in any portion of the building. 

To secure the approval of this department of 
plans showing methods of heating and ventila- 
tion, the above requirements must be guaranteed 
in the specifications accompanying the plans. — 
(Form No. 83, Inspection Dept. of Mass. Dist. 
Police, by authority of Acts 1902, Chapt. 106, 
Sec. 54 and 55.) 

The Vermont Law 

Section 5412. The words, "public buildings," 
as used in this chapter, shall mean churches, 
school buildings, hotels more than two stories 
high, and places of amusement more than one 
story high, and buildings, factories, mills or work- 
shops more than two stories high in which per- 
sons are employed above the second story. 

Sec. 5413. Said board shall take cognizance of 
the interests of the life and health of the inhab- 
itants of the state, shall make or cause to be made 
sanitary investigations and inquiries respecting 
causes of diseases, especially of epidemics, and the 
means of preventing the same, the sources of mor- 
tality and sickness and the effect of localities, em- 
ployments, habits and circumstances of life on the 
public health; and, when requested, or when, in 
their opinion, it is necessary, shall advise with mu- 
nicipal officers in regard to drainage, water sup- 
ply and sewerage of towns and villages, and in 

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Schoolhouse Laws 

regard to the erection, construction, heating, 
ventilation and sanitary arrangements of public 
buildings ; and said board may compel the owners 
of such buildings to provide them with the neces- 
sary appliances and fire escapes for preventing ac- 
cidents to persons who may be in such buildings ; 
and said board shall exercise the powers and 
authority imposed by law upon said board. 

Sec. 5416. Said board shall, when necessary, 
issue to local boards of health its regulations as 
to the lighting, heating and ventilation of school- 
houses, and shall cause sanitary inspection to be 
made of churches, schoolhouses and places of pub- 
lic resort, and make such regulations for the 
safety of persons attending the same as said board 
deems necessary. Public buildings now standing 
or hereafter erected shall conform to the regula- 
tions of said board in respect to sanitary condi- 
tions and fire escapes necessary for the public 
health and for the safety of individuals in such 
public buildings. 

A person, corporation or committee intending 
to erect a public building shall submit plans there- 
of showing the method of heating, plumbing, ven- 
tilation and sanitary arrangements to said board, 
and procure its approval thereof, before erecting 
such building. 

Sec. 5417. A person, corporation or committee 
which erects a public building without the ap- 
proval and without complying with the regulations 

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Schoolhouse Laws 

of the state board of health as provided for in the 
preceding section, shall be fined not more than 
five hundred dollars, nor less than one hun- 
dred dollars, and shall make such building 
to conform to the regulations of said board be- 
fore the same is used, otherwise such building 
shall be deemed a nuisance, and be put in proper 
condition by the local health officer under the di- 
rection of said board at the expense of the owner. 
Sec. 5418. Said board may examine or cause 
to be examined a school building or an outhouse 
and condemn the same as unfit for occupation or 
use, and a building or outhouse so condemned by 
written notice served upon the chairman of the 
board of school directors or the person having 
such school in charge, shall not be occupied or 
used until the same is repaired and the sanitary 
conditions approved by the state board of health. 
A person who violates a provision of this section 
shall be fined not more than fifty dollars nor less 
than five dollars. — (General Statutes of Vermont, 
Chapter 225.) 

The Connecticut Law 
137. Every school district shall be a body 
corporate. And shall have power to sue and be 
sued, to purchase, receive, hold, and convey real 
and personal property for school purposes ; To 
build, purchase, hire, and repair schoolhouses, and 
supply them with fuel, furniture, and other ap- 
pendages and accommodations ; To establish 

217 




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Schoolhouse Lazvs 

schools of different grades; To purchase globes, 
maps, blackboards, and other school apparatus; 
To establish and maintain a school library; To 
employ teachers, except for such time as the town 
may direct the school visitors to employ the 
teachers; And shall pay the wages of such teach- 
ers as are employed by the district committee in 
conformity to law; To lay taxes and borrow 
money for all the foregoing purposes; And to 
make all lawful agreements and regulations for 
establishing and conducting schools, not incon- 
sistent with the regulations of the town having 
jurisdiction of the schools in such district. 

169. No district shall be entitled to receive 
any money from the state, or town, unless it has 
a schoolhouse and outbuildings, satisfactory to 
the board of school visitors. 

170. No new district schoolhouse shall be 
built except according to a plan approved by the 
board of school visitors and by the building com- 
mittee of such district; nor at an expense exceed- 
ing the sum which the district may appropriate 
therefor. 

279. Every schoolhouse shall be kept in a 
cleanly state and free from effluvia arising from 
any drain, privy, or other nuisance, and shall be 
provided with a sufficient number of proper water 
closets, earth closets, or privies, for the use of the 
pupils attending such schoolhouse, and shall be 
properly ventilated. 

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220 



Schoolhouse Laws 

280. Whenever it shall be found by the state 
board of education or by the board of school vis- 
itors, or by a member of the town school com- 
mittee of the town in which any schoolhouse is 
located, that further or different sanitary provi- 
sions or means of lighting or ventilating are re- 
quired in any schoolhouse, and that the same can 
be provided without unreasonable expense, either 
of said boards, or such member of the town school 
committee may recommend to the person or au- 
thority in charge of or controlling such school- 
house such changes in the ventilation, lighting or 
sanitary arrangements of such schoolhouse as they 
may deem necessary. In case such changes be not 
made substantially as recommended within two 
weeks from the date of notice thereof such board 
or member of the committee may make complaint 
to the proper health authority of the community 
in which such schoolhouse is situated, which said 
authority shall, after notice to and hearing of the 
parties interested, order such changes made in the 
lighting, ventilation, or sanitary arrangements of 
such schoolhouse as it may deem necessary or 
proper. 

281. The word schoolhouse as used in para- 
graphs 279 and 280, shall include any building or 
premises in which instruction is afforded to not 
less than ten pupils at one time. Every violation 
of any provision of paragraphs 279 or 280 shall 



221 




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SchoolJwusc Laws 

be punished by a fine of not more than five hun- 
dred dollars or imprisonment for not more than 
six months, or both. 

290. In all cities the common council, in all 
boroughs the warden and burgesses, and in all 
towns and parts of a town not within the limits 
of a city or borough the selectmen, shall require 
that all churches, schoolhouses, and public halls 
that are used for lectures, amusements, exhibi- 
tions, or assemblages of people, shall be provided 
with ample facilities for safe and speedy entrance 
and exit in case of necessity, be arranged so as to 
promote the comfort and safety of persons visit- 
ing them, and be closed till such requirements are 
complied with ; and any city, borough, or town 
may make suitable by-laws regarding the same. 

291. Every story above the first story of a 
building used as a schoolhouse, orphan asylum, 
reformatory, opera house, hall for public assem- 
blies, boarding house accommodating more than 
twelve persons, or tenement house occupied by 
more than five families, shall be provided with 
more than one way of egress, by stairways on the 
inside or fire escapes 'on the outside of such build- 
ing. Said stairways and fire escapes shall, at all 
times, be kept free from obstructions and shall be 
accessible from each room in every story above 
the first story. — (General Statutes Connecticut, 
Chapters 135 and 136.) 



323 




224 



APPENDIX 'B" 

Program for Schoolhouse Competition 

Whenever a board of education deems the 
selection of schoolhouse plans by competition 
best, it becomes necessary to invite architects to 
submit plans. The following suggestions have 
been gathered from several programs and may 
be adapted to the size or style of school contem- 
plated. 

Announcement 

There will be a competition for the selection 
of plans and an architect for the construction of 

a school building conducted 

by the Board of Education of the City of 

in the State of , beginning , 

and ending The judges for this 

competition will be the , acting 

under the advice of Mr , an ex- 
pert. The reward will be an acceptance of the 
general plans submitted together with a com- 
mission to draw final plans for the building, and 
supervise the construction thereof. The other 
competitors shall receive rewards in this order: 
the architect who submits the second best plan 
will receive $ , the third best set$ , 

225 




226 



Schoolhouse Competitions 

the fourth best $ , the fifth best $ 

It is understood that every architect submit his 
best possible plan within the limits of this pro- 
gram, together with a brief explanation thereof. 

The competition is open only to 

architects. All plans may be rejected and unac- 
cepted plans will be returned promptly to their 
authors. 

The Site 

The site of the proposed building is the block 

of ground bounded on the north by. 

street, on the east by street, on the 

south by street, and on the west 

by street. 

The frontage on the several streets is shown 
on the blueprint enclosed, as is also the estab- 
lished grade of the streets surrounding it with 
the present surface of the ground on said block, 
with the location of the present buildings there- 
on. 

As the block is surrounded by prominent 
streets it will be necessary that the four eleva- 
tions be of the same materials, that is, common 
brick cannot be used on either. 

The two most prominent streets are 

and streets, 

and being cross streets and oc- 
cupied by residences. 

227 




228 



Schoolhouse Competitions 

We believe it would be of advantage to archi- 
tects competing to visit our city and inspect the 
grounds and surroundings. 

The Building. 

It must never be forgotten in the preparation 
of designs for this building that this is intended 

to become an school. Architects 

must therefore know intimately the needs to 
which every part of the building is to be put. 
The sum available for the complete erection of 
this building, exclusive of heating, temperature 
regulating, ventilating, plumbing, electric wiring, 
gas piping, architect's fees, movable furniture and 

equipment of the several laboratories, is $ 

and all designs must be made with reference to 
this limit. 

The building proper is to be stories 

high with a basement and attic, 

and must accommodate pupils. 

The various stories shall be feet in 

height, and the .basement feet in depth. 

The materials of construction shall be , 

with walls, floor, ceilings of 

Staircases shall be fireproof with corridors 

feet in width. 

The classrooms must be feet in 

size, light must come from the left side of the 
pupils only, window area must be one-quarter the 
area of the floor space, wardrobes shall be at- 
tached to every room, toilet rooms shall be pro- 

229 




230 



Schoolhouse Competitions 

vided in , the building shall be 

heated by , ventilated by the 

system, regulated by the Johnson system, and 
have included all water pipes, sewer pipes, gas 
pipes and electrical wiring necessary for the com- 
plete equipment of such a structure. 

Requirements. 

The building is to meet the following require- 
ments for classrooms, etc. : 

Classrooms in number, to seat 

pupils each and to contain. 

square feet. 

Recitation rooms, in number, to 

seat pupils each, and to contain 

square feet. 

Study rooms, in number, to seat 

pupils each, and to be placed on 

floor. 

Auditorium, lower floor, to seat from 

to pupils. 

Kindergarten rooms, two, adjoining, first floor, 
to accommodate pupils. 

Toilet rooms, in number, located 

floor. 

Manual training rooms, in num- 
ber, ground floor. 

Domestic science rooms, in num- 
ber, ground floor. 

Drawing rooms, in number, top 

floor, to accommodate pupils, 




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232 



Schoolhouse Competitions 

Commercial department, rooms in 

number, top floor, to accommodate pupils. 

Gymnasium, ground floor, for boys and girls. 

Laboratories, in number, top 

floor, to accommodate pupils. 

Library, one, with reading room attached, sec- 
ond floor. 

Principal's office, with waiting room, first floor. 

Teacher's rest room, one, for ladies, second 
floor. 

Teacher's room, one, for gentlemen, second 
floor. 

Lunch room, one, top floor. 

Playrooms, two, basement, to accommodate 
pupils. 

Bicycle rooms, one, basement. 

Janitor's rooms, in number, base- 
ment. 

Storage rooms, in number, base- 
ment. 

Storage closets, one in each class and recita- 
tion room. 

Plans. 

Competitors, to show that the foregoing re- 
quirements have been complied with, must sub- 
mit the following plans under the accompanying 
conditions : 

1. A plan showing the location on the lot, 
drawn to the scale of one-sixteenth inch to the 
foot. 2. A plan of each story and the basement. 

233 




234 



Schoolhousc Competitions 

3. Four elevations, one of each side, of the en- 
tire number of which one may be shaded. 4. Two 
sections, through the auditorium; one north and 
south and one east and west. All plans, except 
the first mentioned, shall be drawn to the scale 
of one-eighth inch to the foot. But one design 
shall be submitted, though additional plans may 
accompany each design. 

The competing architects will submit, with 
their plans, a careful estimate of the cost of erect- 
ing the building according to their respective 
plans, and this must be accompanied with a cer- 
tificate of a reputable builder that the building 
can be erected according to such plans for a sum 
not exceeding $ ; also a descrip- 
tive specification of the material proposed to be 
employed, and the mode of construction, and of 
heating and ventilating to be adopted. In like 
manner a brief typewritten description calling at- 
tention to points of special importance is allowed. 

During the time of discussion and considera- 
tion by the board of judges plans shall not be 
shown to any of the competitors, nor to the pub- 
lic until the decision has been announced. A plan 
and its author will be excluded from the competi- 
tion if any attempt is made, directly or indirectly, 
by its author to unduly influence the decision of 
the board; if it is sent in after the limit of time 
named in the invitation, or if, in any particular, it 
violates the conditions of the competition. 

235 




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236 



Schoolhouse Competitions 

The architect finally appointed will make the 
detail plans and specifications, and exercise such 
inspection and superintendence, and shall render 
such other assistance in the construction of said 
building as may be required of him. Changes 
and alterations requested by the board shall be 
made in said plan by the architect or architects, 
without any additional compensation from said 
board. 

The superintendent employed by the architect 
shall be approved by the board. 

In full compensation for these services, in case 
said building is erected, including all changes and 
alterations in the same as hereinafter specified, he 
shall be paid a commission of 5 per cent, upon 
the contract price. 



237 




238 



APPENDIX "C* 

Architects' Professional Practice. 

The following is the schedule of minimum 
charges together with a statement of the pro- 
fessional practice of architects deemed usual and 
proper, as adopted by the American Institute of 
Architects. 

1. The architects' professional services con- 
sist of the necessary conferences, the preparation 
of preliminary studies, working drawing, specifi- 
cations, large scale and full size detail drawings, 
and of the general direction and supervision of 
the work, for which, except as hereinafter men- 
tioned, the minimum charge, based upon the total 
cost of the work complete, is six per cent. (The 
total cost is to be interpreted as the cost of all 
materials and labor necessary to complete the 
work, plus contractors' profits and expenses, as 
such cost would be if all materials were new and 
all labor fully paid, at market prices current when 
the work was ordered.) 

2. On residential work, on alterations to ex- 
isting buildings, on monuments, furniture, decora- 
tive and cabinet work and landscape architecture, 
it is proper to make a higher charge than above 
indicated. 



239 




240 



Architects* Professional Practice 

3. The architect is entitled to compensation 
for articles purchased under his direction, even 
though not designed by him. 

4. If an operation is conducted under sepa- 
rate contracts, rather than under a general con- 
tract, it is proper to charge a special fee in addi- 
tion to the charges mentioned elsewhere in this 
schedule. 

5. Where the architect is not otherwise re- 
tained, consultation fees for professional advice 
are to be paid in proportion to the importance of 
the questions involved and services rendered. 

6. Where heating, ventilating, mechanical, 
structural, electrical and sanitary problems are of 
such a nature as to require the services of a 
specialist, the owner is to pay for such services. 
Chemical and mechanical tests and surveys, when 
required, are to be paid for by the owner. 

7. Necessary traveling expenses are to be 
paid by the owner. 

8. If, after a definite scheme has been ap- 
proved, changes in drawings, specifications or 
other documents are required by the owner; or 
if the architect be put to extra labor or expense 
by the delinquency or insolvency of a contractor, 
the architect shall be paid for such additional 
services and expense. 

9. Payments to the architect are due as his 
work progresses in the following order : Upon 
completion of the preliminary studies, one-fifth of 

241 




242 



Architects' Professional Practice 

the entire fee ; upon completion of specifications 
and general working drawings (exclusive of de- 
tails), two-fifths additional, the remainder being 
due from time to time in proportion to the amount 
of service rendered. Until an actual estimate is 
received, charges are based upon the proposed 
cost of the work and payments received are on 
account of the entire fee. 

10. In case of the abandonment or suspension 
of the work, the basis of settlement is to be as 
follows : For preliminary studies, a fee in ac- 
cordance with the character and magnitude of the 
work; for preliminary studies, specifications and 
general working drawings (exclusive of details), 
three-fifths of the fee for complete services. 

11. The supervision of an architect (as dis- 
tinguished from the continuous personal superin- 
tendence which may be secured by the employ- 
ment of a clerk-of-the-works or superintendent of 
construction) means such inspection by the archi- 
tect or his deputy, of work in studios and shops 
or a building or other work in process of erec- 
tion, completion or alteration, as he finds neces- 
sary to ascertain whether it is being executed in 
general conformity with his drawings and speci- 
fications or directions. He has authority to re- 
ject any part of the work which does not so con- 
form and to order its removal and reconstruc- 
tion. He has authority to act in emergencies that 
may arise in the course of construction, to order 

243 




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Architects' Professional Practice 

necessary changes, and to define the intent and 
meaning of the drawings and specifications. On 
operations where a clerk-of-the-works or super- 
intendent of construction is required, the architect 
shall employ such assistance at the owners' ex- 
pense. 

12. Drawings and specifications, as instru- 
ments of service, are the property of the architect. 



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278 



INDEX 



Accommodations, 29. 

Air, 157. 

Air, Effects of Dry, 183. 

Air Filters, 181. 

Air Supply, 177. 

Air-Washer, 179. 

Additions, 33. 

American Institute of Architects, 13 ; Profes- 
sional Practice of, 239. 

Announcements, 225. 

Appendices, A., 193-223; B., 225-237; C, 239- 
245. 

Architects, 7-13 ; Methods of Employment, 9 ; 
Fees, 13 ; Professional Practice, 239. 

Area of Classrooms, 63. 

Area of Playgrounds, 21. 

Arrangement of Building, 25-27. 

Artificial Light, 101-103. 

Aspect, 33. 

Assembly Rooms, 105. 

Attics, 55. 

Automatic Temperature Regulation, 143. 

Basement, 47-49; Entrance to, 35. 

Bicycle Rooms, 107. 

279 



Biology Laboratories, 115. 

Blackboards, 79-83. 

Boilers, 187. 

Boiler Rooms, 185. 

Bookcases, 93. 

Buildings, The, 23-61; Competition for Plans, 
229. 

Bulletin Boards, 99. 

Ceilings, 75. 

Chalk Troughs, 83. 

Chemical Laboratories, 115. 

Chimneys, 187. 

Classroom, The, 63-103 ; Aspect of, 33 ; Tem- 
perature of, 143. 

Cleaning, Vacuum, 95. 

Clerk of the Works, 13. 

Cloak Rooms, 87. 

Clocks, Program, 97. 

Closets, 133. 

Coloring of Walls, 83. 

Commercial Rooms, 107. 

Competitions for choosing plans, 11 ; Program 
for, 225. 

Compensation of Architects, 13 ; 239. 

Condemnation Proceedings, 17. 

Connecticut Law, 217. 

Corridors, 37-39. 

Cost, 57-61. 

Deafening, 53. 

Direct and Indirect Heating, 153. 

Domestic Science Rooms, 107. 



280 



Doors, Classroom, 77-79; Exit, 35. 

Drainage of Sites, 19. 

Drawing Rooms, 109. 

Dressing Rooms, 113. 

Drinking Fountains, 51. 

Duplex Stairways, 43. 

Economy of Heat, 189. 

Elementary School Accommodations, 29. 

Elevators, 45-47. 

Emergency Rooms, 109. 

Emergency Stairs, 55. 

Enlargement, 33. 

Entrances, 35. 

Equipment, 93-101. 

Exits, 35. 

Exterior, 29. 

Fan Blast Ventilation, 167. 

Fences, 23. 

Filters, Air, 181. 

Fire Escapes, 55. 

Fireproofing Staircases, 41. 

Fire Protection, 53. 

Fire Walls in Attics, 57. 

Floors, 73 ; in Basements, 49 ; in Corridors, 39 ; 
Deafening of, 53; in Gymnasiums, 113; in 
Playrooms, 127; in Toilet Rooms, 135. 

Flues, Ventilating, 175. 

Foot Warmers, 191. 

Foundations, 31. 

Fresh Air Supply, 177. 
Furnaces, 149. 



281 



Furniture, School, 95; Manual Training, 125. 

Group System of Lighting, 69. 

Gymnasiums, 111-115. 

Hallways, 37. 

Hand Railings, 43. 

Heat Economy, 189. 

Heating and Ventilation, 139-191. 

Heating of Playrooms, 127. 

Height of Buildings, 31 ; of Classrooms, 65 ; 
of Basements, 49. 

Hot Water Heating, 153. 

Humidity, 181. 

Indirect Heating, 155. 

Inlets and Outlets, 171-177. 

Janitor's Room, 115. 

Kansas Law, 207. 

Kindergartens, 115. 

Laboratories, 115-119. 

Laws for Schoolhouse Construction, 193-223 ; 
New York, 193 ; Pennsylvania, 197 ; New 
Jersey, 199; Utah, 203; South Dakota, 
205; Kansas, 207; Virginia, 209; Massa- 
chusetts, 211; Vermont, 213; Connecticut, 
217. 

Lecture Rooms, 119-121. 

Library, 121. 

Light, Artificial, 101. 

Lighting, 67-69; Aspect of Rooms, 33. 

Location of Sites, 15. 

Lockers, 113. 

Umch Rooms, 121-123. 



282 



Manual Training, 123 ; in Basement, 49. 

Massachusetts Law, 211. 

Materials of Construction, 29 ; of Foundations, 
31. 

Mechanical Ventilation, 165-171. 

Methods of Heating, 147. 

Methods of Ventilation, 161. 

Museum, 125. 

Natural Ventilation, 163-165. 

New Jersey Law, 199. 

New York Law, 193. 

Obtaining Sites, 17. 

Office, Principal's, 127. 

Outlets, 171-173. 

Partitions, 47. 

Pennsylvania Law, 197. 

Physics Laboratories, 115. 

Picture Moulding, 87. 

Pipes, Basement, 49. 

Plans, Competitions for, 11 ; Program for 
Competitions, 225 ; Requirements in Com- 
petitions, 231-233. 

Platforms, 91-93. 

Playgrounds, 21. 

Playrooms, 127. 

Plenum Ventilation, 167. 

Plumbing, 49-53 ; Corridor Sinks, 39 ; Drink- 
ing Fountains, 51 ; Toilet Rooms, 133-137. 

Preliminary Requirements, 7-23. 

Principal's Room, 127. 

Prism Glass, 71. 



283 



Problem of Heating and Ventilation, The, 139 

Professional Practice of Architects, 239. 

•Program for Schoolhouse Competitions, 225. 

Program Clocks, 97. 

Projection Apparatus, 99. 

Radiators, 155: 191. 

Railings, Stair, 43. 

Reception Room, 131. 

Recitation Rooms, 127-129. 

Registers, Ventilating, 171-7. 

Regulation, Temperature, 147. 

Requirements in Building Program, 231. 

Requirements for Ventilation, 161. 

Roof Playgrounds, 21. 

Roofs, 57. 

Rooms, Assembly, 105 ; Class, 63 

127; Boiler, 185. 
Sanitation, Drainage of Sites, 

49; Toilet Rooms, 131. 
School Furniture, 95. 
School Grounds, 15-21. 
Science Teachers' Room, 129. 
Shapes of Buildings, 27. 
Sites, 15-21; Location of, 15 
Soil, 19. 

South Dakota Law, 305. 
Special Rooms, 105-137. 
Special Thermometers, 97. 
Staircases, 39-45. 
Standards, Classroom, 63-67 
Steam Heating, 151. 



19 



Recitation, 
Plumbing, 



in Program, 227. 



284 



Stove Heating', 140. 

Storage Rooms, 129. 

Teachers' Room, 129 ; Science, 129. 

Teachers' Wardrobe, 93. 

Telephones, 99. 

Temperature, 143, 

Temperature Regulation, 143-147. 

Thermometers, 97. 

Toilet Rooms, 131-137; Plumbing, 49. 

Urinals, 133. 

Utah Law, 203. 

Vacuum Cleaning, 95. 

Vacuum Steam Heating, 153. 

Vacuum Ventilation, 167. 

Ventilating Flues, 175. 

Ventilation Requirements for, 161 ; Methods 

of, 161; Natural, 163; Mechanical, 165; 

Vacuum, 167 ; Plenum, 167. 
Ventilation of Toilet Rooms, 133. 
Vermont Law, 213. 
Vestibules, 37. 
Virginia Law, 209. 
Vitiation of Air, 157. 
Wainscoting, 45. 
Waiting Room, 131. 
Wall Coloring, 83-87. 
Walls, Deafening, 53 ; Sliding, 47. 
Wardrobes, 87-91 ; Teachers', 93. 
Washers, Air, 179. 
Windows, 69-73. 
Window Shades, 73. 
Woodwork, 45. 

285 



EXTENDS AROUND THE GLOBE 

The Unique Product or the Johnson 
Service Company 

Among the industrial enterprises which have 
grown up in this county there are few which are 
more unique in character and at the same time 
render a greater , service to mankind than that 
which provides for the regulation of temperature. 

At a time when the county is discussing the 
conservation of natural resources and modern 
science points out the harmful effects of tempera- 
ture extremes it may prove interesting to explain 
what a system of temperature control really 
means. 

Wherever artificial heat is employed the con- 
sumption of fuel is a factor to be dealt with. Ex- 
cess heat is a double waste. It- wastes money and 
endangers health and comfort. With the size of 
a building and the increased number of inmates in 
such a building the problem grows in importance. 

Take, for instance, a large office building, a 
hotel or a schoolhouse. It has a large number 
of rooms. During the winter months these have 
to be heated. The amount of fuel consumed is 
considerable. The janitor or fireman cannot so 
arrange that all rooms in the building are kept at 

286 



School Architecture 

an even temperature. This becomes specially true 
on windy days or in extreme cold weather. The 
rooms with northern exposure lack sufficient heat, 
while the rooms with southern exposure become 
too warm. The Johnson system will hold the 
temperature in every room of the building at any 
desired degree. All rooms may be kept at 70 de- 
grees, or the various rooms may be kept at differ- 
ent degrees of temperature as desired. 

The advantage derived is not only found in 
the uniform distribution of warmth throughout a 
building and the elimination of temperature ex- 
tremes, but also in that the consumption of fuel is 
under complete control. Not an ounce of coal is 
wasted. 

Aside from the economic advantage of temper- 
ature regulation the physical advantage cannot be 
minimized. A room that is too hot or too cold is 
certain to be harmful to its inmates. Coughs and 
colds are caused by sudden exposure to the out- 
door air after leaving an overheated room, or to 
a room where the temperature is gone down be- 
low the degree of ordinary comfort. 

It is perhaps unnecessary to discuss the ad- 
vantages of temperature control. That its value 
is commonly accepted may be noted from the 
fact that the best known buildings throughout the 
United States and Europe are equipped with the 
Johnson system, which is not only the pioneer in 
this field, but also the recognized leader. It has. 

287 



School Architecture 

its imitators, as has every great invention, but 
none compares in efficiency and completeness. 

The government buildings at Washington, 
from the Capitol to the White House, the state 
capitols and state universities, the homes of the 
Astors, the Vanderbilts and the Carnegies, thou- 
sands upon thousands of school buildings, office 
buildings, hotels, churches, theaters and factories, 
in fact, a number and variety of buildings too 
numerous to mention, are equipped with the John- 
son system. In Europe some of the most im- 
portant public and private buildings, including 
princely palaces, hospitals and dwellings are so 
equipped. 

In speaking of so important an invention, it 
may not be out of place here to say a word about 
the inventor. Some twenty years ago Prof. 
Warren S. Johnson, then an instructor in a 
normal school, conceived the idea of controlling 
artificial warming of buildings. The beginning 
was a small one and the enterprise was not with- 
out its struggles and trials. But the indomitable 
will power of the inventor, who also became the 
directive business head of the company, overcame 
the most difficult obstacles. The enterprise was 
safely led through the shoals and rocks of com- 
mercial hazard, the mechanical problems were suc- 
cessfully solved, and the recognition which was 
sought and deserved was won. 



288 



School Architecture 

Today it must be admitted that Prof. Johnson's 
invention is an important contribution to the wel- 
fare of mankind. Its economic advantage is in- 
estimable, and if we place any value upon physical 
comfort and. protection against the danger of tem- 
perature extremes, the inventor has earned the 
gratitude of the world. 

The invention, too, has been the means of 
creating a large industry. Several hundred men 
are employed at the home plant, a splendid lire- 
proof structure. The company also maintains 
branch offices in the leading cities of the United 
States and Canada, employing a large number of 
men at each office. Its foreign offices are located 
at' London, Berlin and Warsaw. 



289 



The Illustrations in this Book 



The buildings illustrated in this little volume 
are simply a- few of several thousand school- 
houses which have been equipped with the John- 
son system of temperature regulation. 

The number of buildings so fitted includes not 
only the recent and most modern public and pri- 
vate schools, but also a long list of normal 
schools, colleges, and universities located in vari- 
ous parts of the United States. 



JOHNSON SERVICE CO 

Main Office and Factory 
149-151 Michigan Street, Milwaukee, Wi 



BRANCH OFFICES 
BOSTON, MASS. 12 Pearl Street 

BUFFALO, N. Y. 11 Erie County Bank Bldg. 
CHICAGO, ILL. 98 E. Lake Street 

CINCINNATI, O. 68 Perm Bldg. 

CLEVELAND, O. 704 American Trust Bldg. 
DENVER, COLO. 816 Nineteenth Street 

DETROIT, MICH. 224 Twenty-first Street 

KANSAS CITY, MO. 318 W. Eleventh Street 
MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. 525 Sixth Ave.. South 
NEW YORK CITY 123 East 27th Street 

OAKLAND, CAL. 963 Harrison Street 

PHILADELPHIA, PA. 1522 Sansom Street 

PITTSBURG, PA. 440 Sixth Avenue 

PORTLAND, ORE. 50S Beck Bldg. 

SAN FRANCISCO. CAL. 302 Monadnock Bldg. 
SEATTLE, WASH. 476 Arcade Bldg. 

WASHINGTON, D. C. 1306 F Street. N.W. 



JOHNSON HEAT REGULATING COMPANY 
SAINT LOUIS, M<). •. , <>:> North Tenth Streel 

JOHNSON TEMPERATURE REGULATING 
COMPANY < >]■" CANADA 

TORONTO. ONT. L18 Adelaide Street, V\ 

WINNIPEG, MAX. 259 Stanley S 

GESELLSCHAFT FUR SELBSTTAETIGE 
TEMPERATURREGELUNG 

BERLIN, GERMANY W L5 Schaperstr., is 

FRANTS ALLING 
COPENHAGEN, DENMARK Puggaardsgade, 4 

HENRY SIMON, LTD. 
MANCHESTER, ENGLAND 20 Mount St. 

JACOB( > SCHNEIDER 
MADRID. SPAIN Alfonso XII. 56 

DRZEWIECK1 & JEZIORANSK1 
WARSAW, RUSS1 \ Jerozolimska, 85 



13 



jl- 



One copy del. to Cat. Div. 






